Nanoparticles: Properties and Applications in Cancer Immunotherapy

Abstract

Background:: Tumours are no longer regarded as isolated masses of aberrantly proliferating epithelial cells. Rather, their properties depend on complex interactions between epithelial cancer cells and the surrounding stromal compartment within the tumour microenvironment. In particular, leukocyte infiltration plays a role in controlling tumour development and is now considered one of the hallmarks of cancer. Thus, in the last few years, immunotherapy has become a promising strategy to fight cancer, as its goal is to reprogram or activate antitumour immunity to kill tumour cells, without damaging the normal cells and provide long-lasting results where other therapies fail. However, the immune-related adverse events due to the low specificity in tumour cell targeting, strongly limit immunotherapy efficacy. In this regard, nanomedicine offers a platform for the delivery of different immunotherapeutic agents specifically to the tumour site, thus increasing efficacy and reducing toxicity. Indeed, playing with different material types, several nanoparticles can be formulated with different shape, charge, size and surface chemical modifications making them the most promising platform for biomedical applications. Aim:: In this review, we will summarize the different types of cancer immunotherapy currently in clinical trials or already approved for cancer treatment. Then, we will focus on the most recent promising strategies to deliver immunotherapies directly to the tumour site using nanoparticles. Conclusions:: Nanomedicine seems to be a promising approach to improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. However, additional investigations are needed to minimize the variables in the production processes in order to make nanoparticles suitable for clinical use.

Nanobugs as Drugs: Bacterial Derived Nanomagnets Enhance Tumor Targeting and Oncolytic Activity of HSV‐1 Virus

“…[10] However, again the reliance on passive tropism of cells results in a lack of specificity, presents challenges with respect to the delivery of the concentrations required to elicit significant efficacious responses and therefore risks abscopal toxicity. Equally, although liposomes, [11] dendrimers, [12] and polymeric nanoparticles [13] have demonstrated shielding and cell binding advantages, [14] the ultimate carrier must simultaneously provide active guidance. [6] In this study, we combine the therapeutic activity of the OV (HSV1716) with nanomagnets (magnetosomes, MAG) isolated from specialized magnetotactic bacteria.…”

Inconsistencies in Modeling the Efficacy of the Oncolytic Virus HSV1716 Reveal Potential Predictive Biomarkers for Tolerability

“…We have shown that the adoption of a more targeted approach for systemic delivery of OVs can increase their concentration at the target tumor through magnetic targeting ( Howard et al, 2022 ) and cell delivery ( Muthana et al, 2011 ; Iscaro et al, 2022 ) for breast and prostate cancers. Further nano-enabled formulations have shielded OVs from immunosurveillance with or without additional ligands for targeted recognition ( Iscaro et al, 2019 ). Through these strategies, saturating concentrations of virus may be avoided and hence improve tolerability.…”

Ruthenium-based antitumor drugs and delivery systems from monotherapy to combination therapy

“…Immunotherapy for cancer refers to the treatment of cancer by activating the body's immune system with drugs to attack tumor cells through the body's natural immunity 294,295 receptor T cells), excitatory antibody receptors for costimulation, cancer vaccines, oncolytic viruses, and bisspecific antibodies 296,297 . Nanoparticles are often used to specifically deliver antigens, adjuvants, and therapeutic agents 298,299 . Nanoparticles themselves can also regulate immune microenvironment of tumors [300][301][302][303] .…”