“…This method has been used to detect thyroid-stimulating hormone, prostate antigen (PSA), carcinogenic embryonic antigen, and HIV p24 in serum. − Alternative assays have used binding partners to indirectly sense SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, PSA, EGF, C-reactive protein, thrombin, vascular endothelial growth factor, glucose, asparagine, or thiamine, without purification, directly in biofluids, such as plasma, serum, saliva, sweat, or urine. − Additional studies have indirectly detected biomarker enzyme activity such as alkaline phosphatase or botulinum toxin in biofluids. , Far fewer studies have attempted to directly detect analytes in biofluids, reflecting the challenging nature of this type of assay. Examples include detection of DNA sequences containing methylcytosine, natriuretic peptides, and mutant hemoglobin proteins in biofluids such as serum or blood. ,, …”