Nanoscale Interaction Mechanisms of Antiviral Activity

Abstract

Nanomaterials have now found applications across all segments of society including but not limited to energy, environment, defense, agriculture, purification, food medicine, diagnostics, and others. The pandemic and the vulnerability of humankind to emerging viruses and other infectious diseases has renewed interest in nanoparticles as a potential new class of antivirals. In fact, a growing body of evidence in the literature suggests nanoparticles may have activity against multiple viruses including HIV, HNV, SARS-CoV-2, HBV, HCV, HSV, RSV, and others. The most described antiviral nanoparticles include copper, alloys, and oxides including zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium oxide, iron oxide, and their composites, nitrides, and other ceramic nanoparticles, as well as gold and silver nanoparticles, and sulfated and nonsulfated polysaccharides and other sulfated polymers including galactan, cellulose, polyethylenimine, chitosan/chitin, and others. Nanoparticles, synthesized via the biological or green method, also have great importance and are under major consideration these days, as their method of synthesis is easy, reliable, cost-effective, efficient, and eco-friendly, and is done using easily available sources such as bacteria, actinomycetes, yeast, fungi, algae, herbs, and plants, in comparison to chemically mediated synthesis. Chemical synthesis is highly expensive and involves toxic solvents, high pressure, energy, and high temperature conversion. Examples of biologically synthesized NPs include iron oxide, Cu and CuO NPs, and platinum and palladium NPs. In contrast to traditional medications, nanomedications have multiple advantages: their small size, increased surface to volume ratio, improved pharmacokinetics, improved biodistribution, and targeted delivery. In terms of antiviral activity, nanoscale interactions represent a unique mode of action. As reviewed here their biomedical application as an antiviral has shown four major mechanisms:(1) direct viral interaction prohibiting the virus from infecting the cell, (2) interaction to receptor or cell surface preventing the virus from entering the host cells, (3) preventing the replication of the virus, or (4) other processing mechanisms which inhibit the spread of virus. Here these pharmacologic mechanisms are reviewed and the challenges for technology translation are discussed in more detail.

Exploring the Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Antiviral Potential of Eco-Friendly Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles Using Leaf Aqueous Extract of Portulaca oleracea L.

“…NPs have the potential to block virus replications inside the host cells by the function of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) and blocking the essential enzymes needed for virus replications [61]. In addition, when exposed to NPs, infected cells may The antiviral efficacy of NPs can be attributed to different mechanisms such as the interaction between viruses and cells leading to prohibiting the infection, preventing the entrance of viruses to the host cells through the interact of NPs with cell surfaces or specific inhibiting the viruses' replications, prevent the spread of viruses, enhance the oxidative stress through production of ROS, cell apoptosis, and enhance the immune response of the host cells [59,60]. The ability of Ag-NPs to block virus attachment to host cells and hence cell damage is achieved by their interaction with the viral envelope, receptors, or surface proteins.…”

Pathogen‐binding nanoparticles to inhibit host cell infection by heparan sulfate and sialic acid dependent viruses and protozoan parasites

“…Antiviral applications of metal NPs, such as Au‐ and Ag‐based systems, have recently been reviewed extensively 64–67 . Here, selected highlights that function by direct virus binding are summarized.…”

“…Antiviral applications of metal NPs, such as Au-and Agbased systems, have recently been reviewed extensively. [64][65][66][67] Here, selected highlights that function by direct virus binding are summarized. These examples are then compared to antiviral NPs made from other materials.…”

Synthesis and Antimicrobial Applications of ZnO Nanostructures: A Review

“…264−274 Zinc ions can penetrate cell walls (especially when driven by ionophores), augmenting the intracellular Zn 2+ concentration and subsequently impairing virus replication. 275 Bhatti and DeLong 276 recently reviewed the antiviral application of different nanomaterials, including ZnO NSs: in that paper, ROS generated through photocatalytic reactions driven by UV−Vis light on ZnO NSs are indicated as the main species responsible for damaging of the viral envelopes, interfering with viral entry and replication. 249 Indeed, before the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of ZnO NSs as antiviral agents was not as massively diffused as that of their antimicrobial applications.…”

“…It is noteworthy that most of the papers available in literature deal with the use of Zn 2+ ions as antiviral agents, rather than ZnO NSs, possibly in combination with other molecules like lactoferrin, heparin, etc. − Zinc ions can penetrate cell walls (especially when driven by ionophores), augmenting the intracellular Zn 2+ concentration and subsequently impairing virus replication . Bhatti and DeLong recently reviewed the antiviral application of different nanomaterials, including ZnO NSs: in that paper, ROS generated through photocatalytic reactions driven by UV–Vis light on ZnO NSs are indicated as the main species responsible for damaging of the viral envelopes, interfering with viral entry and replication …”