Narrating Identity: the Employment of Mythological and Literary Narratives in Identity Formation Among the Hijras of India

Abstract

This article explores how the hijras and kinnars of India use mythological narratives in identity-formation. In contemporary India, the hijras are a minority group who are ostracised from mainstream society as a result of their nonheteronormative gender performances and anatomical presentations. Hijras suffer discrimination and marginalisation in their daily lives, forming their own social groups outside of natal families and kinship structures. Mythological and literary narratives play a significant role in explaining and legitimising behavioural patterns, ritual practices, and anatomical forms that are specific to hijras, and alleviating some of the stigma surrounding this identity. In this article, I focus on certain narratives that hijras employ in making sense of and giving meaning to their lives, including mythological stories concerning people of ambiguous gender and myths associated with Bahuchara Mata. I argue that these ontological narratives serve to bring hijra identity into being and play a crucial role in constructing and authenticating hijra identity in modern India.

The castrated gods and their castration cults: Revenge, punishment, and spiritual supremacy

“…69,70), despite otherwise behaving as fierce, masculine warriors. Since the language in the epic and other sources is ambiguous about whether Arjuna is castrated, hermaphrodite, or merely cross-dressing (a term for eunuchs did not exist in Sanskrit; Doniger, 2003;cf., Custodi, 2007;Hiltebeitel, 1980;Loh, 2014)-and is similarly vague concerning his brothers-their stories are omitted to focus on those explicitly involving castration.…”

“…"You [Shiva] are not a Brahmin nor a man nor a woman nor a eunuch" (Mahabharata,13.17.56). This is important because, despite the gods' castrations, in India "eunuchs have the reputation of being homosexuals, with a penchant for oral sex, and are looked upon as the very dregs of society" (Hildebeitel, 1980, p. 162) in the epics, in the law books, and in contemporary society (e.g., Loh, 2014;Nanda, 1999). Shiva's phallus (as distinct from his lingam, which has far more abstract and metaphysical meanings; their separation or conflation is an area of intense scholarly discussion; e.g., Doniger, 2011;Shulman, 1986) is still venerated today.…”

“…According to one legend (Shiekh, 2010), Bahuchara, a member of the high charan caste considered by much of India to be divine, is traveling when a bandit gang led by Bapiya attack the caravan and plan to ravish Bahuchara. Living by the deathbefore-dishonor code of her caste, Bahuchara grabs a sword and cuts off her breasts to get rid of her femininity, considered a version of female castration that assures deification for her virtue and purity (Shiekh, 2010;Loh, 2014). In another version, she is raped, and the bandits become impotent but retain their genitals.…”

“…As an act of contrition, they begin worshipping Bahuchara by dressing and behaving as women. According to Loh (2014), in a third version Bahuchara is not a woman, but a prince. When the bandits threaten him, he (nonsensically) uses his spiritual power to turn himself into a woman.…”

“…Even the versions involving a prince are clearly goddess stories with her castration of male malefactors. Bahuchara's priests, the hijrahs (known by other names in different localities), are recognized by Hindu and Muslim Indians alike, and an estimated 50,000-500,000 live in India (e.g., Loh, 2014;Thappa, Singh, & Kaimal, 2008). Theoretically they are castrated, but in practice most only engage in ritual transvestism (e.g., Ferrari, 2015;Hildebeitel, 1980).…”