Narrative Review of Sex Differences in Muscle Strength, Endurance, Activation, Size, Fiber Type, and Strength Training Participation Rates, Preferences, Motivations, Injuries, and Neuromuscular Adaptations

Nuzzo, James L.

doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000004329

Cited by 87 publications

(87 citation statements)

References 487 publications

(942 reference statements)

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“…[25][26][27] Potential causes of this sex differences include: greater muscle mass in men which causes greater intramuscular pressures on arteries that feed the exercising muscle and thus limits blood flow and oxygen supply to the muscle; greater proportional representation of type II muscle fiber areas in men than women; and larger exercise-induced reductions in voluntary activation in men than women. 25,26,50 Nevertheless, we acknowledge that the sample sizes in the current study were small and the observed sex differences in muscle fatigability should be interpreted with caution.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 75%

“…The observed sex differences of greater susceptibly of men than women to muscle fatigue from CON max ‐only and ECC max ‐CON max exercise are novel in that most studies that have observed sex differences in muscle fatigability have involved isometric rather than non ‐isometric tasks 25–27 . Potential causes of this sex differences include: greater muscle mass in men which causes greater intramuscular pressures on arteries that feed the exercising muscle and thus limits blood flow and oxygen supply to the muscle; greater proportional representation of type II muscle fiber areas in men than women; and larger exercise‐induced reductions in voluntary activation in men than women 25,26,50 . Nevertheless, we acknowledge that the sample sizes in the current study were small and the observed sex differences in muscle fatigability should be interpreted with caution.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Muscle fatigue during maximal eccentric‐only, concentric‐only, and eccentric‐concentric bicep curl exercise with automated drop setting

Nuzzo

Pinto

Nosaka

2023

Scandinavian Med Sci Sports

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Connected adaptive resistance exercise (CARE) machines are new technology purported to adjust resistance exercise loads in response to muscle fatigue. The present study examined muscle fatigue (strength loss, fatigue perceptions) during maximal eccentric‐only (ECCmax‐only), concentric‐only (CONmax‐only), and coupled ECC‐CON (ECCmax‐CONmax) bicep curl exercise on a CARE machine. Eleven men and nine women completed the three protocols in separate sessions and in random order. All protocols included 4 sets of 20 maximal effort muscle contractions. Strength loss was calculated as Set 4 set end load minus Set 1 highest load. The CARE machine's algorithm adjusted resistances automatically, permitting continued maximal effort repetitions without stopping. Consequently, all protocols caused substantial fatigue. Women were most susceptible to strength loss from exercise that included maximal efforts in the ECC phase, whereas men were most susceptible to strength loss from exercise that included maximal efforts in the CON phase. With ECCmax‐only exercise, ECC strength loss (mean ± SD) was similar between men (55.9 ± 14.1%) and women (56.4 ± 10.8%). However, with CONmax‐only exercise, men and women experienced 55.6 ± 6.2% and 35.3 ± 8.7% CON strength loss, respectively. With ECCmax‐CONmax exercise, men experienced greater ECC (62.9 ± 7.7%) and CON (77.0 ± 5.3%) strength loss than women (ECC: 48.5 ± 15.7%, CON: 66.2 ± 12.1%). Heightened perceptions of fatigue and pain of the exercised limb were reported after all protocols. Women generally reported more biceps pain than men. The results illustrate CARE technology delivers ECC‐only and accentuated ECC exercise feasibly. Acute responses to repeated maximal effort bicep curl exercise with such technology might differ between men and women depending on muscle contraction type.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 75%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Muscle fatigue during maximal eccentric‐only, concentric‐only, and eccentric‐concentric bicep curl exercise with automated drop setting

Nuzzo

Pinto

Nosaka

2023

Scandinavian Med Sci Sports

Self Cite

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“…Although the exercise protocols used do not seem to be much different, it is difficult to explain why we did not obtain similar results; however, it might be attributable to the use of free-weight exercises instead of the Smith machine. Concerning sex differences, another reason could be that women have a higher proportion of slow muscle fibers when compared to men [ 50 ]. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms need to be studied further.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Should We Use the Men Load–Velocity Profile for Women in Deadlift and Hip Thrust?

Nieto-Acevedo

Romero-Moraleda

Montalvo-Pérez

et al. 2023

IJERPH

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Injuries are common in team sports and can impact both team and individual performance. In particular, hamstring strain injuries are some of the most common injuries. Furthermore, hamstring injury ratios, in number of injuries and total absence days, have doubled in the last 21 seasons in professional soccer. Weakness in hip extensor strength has been identified as a risk factor in elite-level sprinters. In addition, strength imbalances of the hamstring muscle group seem to be a common cause of hamstring strain injuries. In this regard, velocity-based training has been proposed to analyze deficits in the force–velocity profile. Previous studies have shown differences between men and women, since there are biomechanical and neuromuscular differences in the lower limbs between sexes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the load–velocity profile between males and females during two of the most important hip extension exercises: the hip thrust and the deadlift. Sixteen men and sixteen women were measured in an incremental loading test following standard procedures for the hip thrust and deadlift exercises. Pearson’s correlation (r) was used to measure the strength of the correlation between movement velocity and load (%1RM). The differences in the load–velocity relationship between the men and the women were assessed using a 2 (sex) × 15 (load) repeated-measures ANOVA. The main findings revealed that: (I) the load–velocity relationship was always strong and linear in both exercises (R2 range: 0.88–0.94), (II) men showed higher velocities for light loads (30–50%1RM; effect size: 0.9–0.96) than women for the deadlift, but no significant differences were found for the hip thrust. Based on the results of this study, the load–velocity equations seem to be sex-specific. Therefore, we suggest that using sex-specific equations to analyze deficits in the force–velocity profile would be more effective to control intensity in the deadlift exercise.

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“…For example, significant sex differences exist in the response to both acute exercise and chronic training adaptation ( 241 – 243 ), and the effects of reproductive status, endogenous and exogenous hormones, and the menstrual cycle are underappreciated not only in research studies but also in training program design and application ( 244 ). Importantly, sex differences extend to many other training-related factors, including muscle mass and strength, injuries, and even training participation rates ( 245 ). On occasion, understudied approaches can lead to detrimental outcomes, as observed for the transient hype surrounding the so-called benefits of cold-water immersion, whole body cryotherapy, and other passive recovery strategies that in certain contexts can adversely affect recovery or performance outcomes ( 246 , 247 ).…”

Section: Optimizing Training Adaptations To Enhance Athletic Performancementioning

confidence: 99%

The molecular athlete: exercise physiology from mechanisms to medals

Furrer

Hawley

Handschin

2023

Physiological Reviews

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Human skeletal muscle demonstrates remarkable plasticity, adapting to numerous external stimuli including the habitual level of contractile loading. Accordingly, muscle function and exercise capacity encompass a broad spectrum, from inactive individuals with low levels of endurance and strength, to elite athletes who produce prodigious performances underpinned by pleiotropic training-induced muscular adaptations. Our current understanding of the signal integration, interpretation and output coordination of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern muscle plasticity across this continuum is incomplete. As such, training methods and their application to elite athletes largely rely on a "trial and error" approach with the experience and practices of successful coaches and athletes often providing the bases for "post hoc" scientific enquiry and research. This review provides a synopsis of the morphological and functional changes along with the molecular mechanisms underlying exercise adaptation to endurance- and resistance-based training. These traits are placed in the context of innate genetic and inter-individual differences in exercise capacity and performance, with special considerations given to the ageing athletes. Collectively, we provide a comprehensive overview of skeletal muscle plasticity in response to different modes of exercise, and how such adaptations translate from "molecules to medals".

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Narrative Review of Sex Differences in Muscle Strength, Endurance, Activation, Size, Fiber Type, and Strength Training Participation Rates, Preferences, Motivations, Injuries, and Neuromuscular Adaptations

Abstract: Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text.

Cited by 87 publications

References 487 publications

Muscle fatigue during maximal eccentric‐only, concentric‐only, and eccentric‐concentric bicep curl exercise with automated drop setting

Muscle fatigue during maximal eccentric‐only, concentric‐only, and eccentric‐concentric bicep curl exercise with automated drop setting

Should We Use the Men Load–Velocity Profile for Women in Deadlift and Hip Thrust?

The molecular athlete: exercise physiology from mechanisms to medals

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