Naturally Occurring Anthraquinones: Chemistry and Therapeutic Potential in Autoimmune Diabetes

Abstract

Anthraquinones are a class of aromatic compounds with a 9,10-dioxoanthracene core. So far, 79 naturally occurring anthraquinones have been identified which include emodin, physcion, cascarin, catenarin, and rhein. A large body of literature has demonstrated that the naturally occurring anthraquinones possess a broad spectrum of bioactivities, such as cathartic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, diuretic, vasorelaxing, and phytoestrogen activities, suggesting their possible clinical application in many diseases. Despite the advances that have been made in understanding the chemistry and biology of the anthraquinones in recent years, research into their mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential in autoimmune disorders is still at an early stage. In this paper, we briefly introduce the etiology of autoimmune diabetes, an autoimmune disorder that affects as many as 10 million worldwide, and the role of chemotaxis in autoimmune diabetes. We then outline the chemical structure and biological properties of the naturally occurring anthraquinones and their derivatives with an emphasis on recent findings about their immune regulation. We discuss the structure and activity relationship, mode of action, and therapeutic potential of the anthraquinones in autoimmune diabetes, including a new strategy for the use of the anthraquinones in autoimmune diabetes.

Phytochemical Screening and Heavy Metal Analysis of Ulva Reticulata

“…Anthraquinones are a class of aromatic compound possessing a broad spectrum of bioactivities, such as cathartic, anticancer, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, diuretic, vasorelaxing, and phytoestrogen activities [35]. In the present study, methanol extract was reported to contain anthraquinone.…”

HPTLC-DESI-HRMS-Based Profiling of Anthraquinones in Complex Mixtures—A Proof-of-Concept Study Using Crude Extracts of Chilean Mushrooms

“…The authentic reference compounds endocrocin (3), hypericin (5) and skyrin (6) were available from the in-house compound library of the Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry (IPB), Halle (Saale), Germany. Methanol and toluene were used at analytical grade.…”

“…Anthraquinones represent a large family of naturally occurring pigments, which are produced by plants, microbes, lichens, insects, and fungi [1]. Besides their coloring properties, these natural products exhibit a broad range of bioactivities such as antibacterial, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, fungicidal, insecticidal, laxative, antiviral, and anticancer but also DNA intercalating properties [2][3][4][5][6][7]. The chemical structure of anthraquinones is based on an anthracene skeleton with two keto groups in position 9 and 10.…”

Rheum australe, an endangered high-value medicinal herb of North Western Himalayas: a review of its botany, ethnomedical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology

“…So far, about 200 naturally occurring AQs have been reported from lichens, fungi and higher medicinal plants (Singh and Chauhan 2004). In higher plants, they are found in some major families including Fabaceae, Polygonaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rubiaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae (Chien et al 2015). Based on their mass spectra, about 107 phenolic compounds have been identified or tentatively characterized from the genus Rheum.…”

“…Further, kinetic, in vivo and docking studies demonstrated 17 to exhibit mixed type of inhibition that could effectively avert postprandial spikes, thereby suggesting this AQ as a potent inhibitor compared to the positive control acarbose. Though a prominent agent to intervene autoimmune diabetes (AID), Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has rendered 17 as unsafe in naturopathic treatments due to some serious side effects like diarrhea, nausea and even renal failure (Chien et al 2015). Babu et al (2004) Compound 9 was found to show a significant inhibiting action against yeast AG and was fourth best at inhibiting mammalian AG.…”