Navigating fertility dilemmas across the lifespan in girls with Turner syndrome—a scoping review

Abstract

BACKGROUND Girls with Turner syndrome (TS) lack a partial or complete sex chromosome, which causes an accelerated decline of their ovarian reserve. Girls have to deal with several dilemmas related to their fertility, while only a limited number of them are referred to a fertility specialist and counselled about options of family planning on time. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE This scoping review provides an update of the literature on fertility in girls with TS throughout their lifespan and aims to propose a clinical practice guideline on fertility in TS. SEARCH METHODS Databases of PubMed, Embase, and Web of science were searched using the following key terms: Turner syndrome, fertility, puberty, pregnancy, sex-hormones, karyotype, fertility preservation, assisted reproductive techniques, and counselling, alongside relevant subject headings and synonymous terms. English language articles published since 2007 were critically reviewed. Pregnancies after using donated oocytes and data about girls with TS with Y-chromosomal content were excluded. OUTCOMES This search identified 1269 studies of which 120 were extracted for the review. The prevalence of natural conception ranged from 15% to 48% in women with 45,X/46,XX, 1% to 3% in women with 45,X, and 4% to 9% in women with other TS karyotypes. When assessing a girl’s fertility potential, it was crucial to determine the karyotype in two cell lines, because hidden mosaicism may exist. In addition to karyotype, assessment of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) played a significant role in estimating ovarian function. Girls with AMH above the detection limit were most likely to experience spontaneous thelarche, menarche, and ongoing ovarian function during the reproductive lifespan. Fertility preservation became more routine practice: vitrification of oocytes was reported in 58 girls with TS and a median of five oocytes were preserved per stimulation. Ovarian tissue cryopreservation has demonstrated the presence of follicles in approximately 30% of girls with TS, mostly in girls with mosaic-TS, spontaneous puberty, and AMH above the detection limit. Although girls and their parents appreciated receiving counselling on fertility in TS, only one in ten girls with TS received specialized counselling. Unfamiliarity with fertility preservation techniques or uncertainties regarding the eligibility of a girl for fertility preservation constituted barriers for healthcare professionals when discussing fertility with girls with TS. WIDER IMPLICATIONS There currently is a high demand for fertility preservation techniques in girls with TS. A reliable prognostic model to determine which girls with TS might benefit from fertility preservation is lacking. Only a minority of these girls received comprehensive fertility counselling on the full spectrum of fertility, including uncertainties of fertility preservation, pregnancy risks, and alternatives, such as adoption. Fertility preservation could be a viable option for girls with TS. However, the question remains whether enough oocytes can be obtained for a realistic prospect of a live birth. It is important that girls and parents are empowered with the necessary information to make a well-informed decision.