Nematodes that associate with terrestrial molluscs as definitive hosts, includingPhasmarhabditis hermaphrodita(Rhabditida: Rhabditidae) and its development as a biological molluscicide

Abstract

Terrestrial molluscs (Mollusca: Gastropoda) are important economic pests worldwide, causing extensive damage to a variety of crop types, and posing a health risk to both humans and wildlife. Current knowledge indicates that there are eight nematode families that associate with molluscs as definitive hosts, including Agfidae, Alaninematidae, Alloionematidae, Angiostomatidae, Cosmocercidae, Diplogastridae, Mermithidae and Rhabditidae. To date, Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Schneider, 1859) Andrássy, 1983 (Rhabditida: Rhabditidae) is the only nematode that has been developed as a biological molluscicide. The nematode, which was commercially released in 1994 by MicroBio Ltd, Littlehampton, UK (formally Becker Underwood, now BASF) under the tradename Nemaslug®, is now sold in 15 different European countries. This paper reviews nematodes isolated from molluscs, with specially detailed information on the life cycle, host range, commercialization, natural distribution, mass production and field application of P. hermaphrodita.

Nematodes associated with terrestrial slugs in the Edmonton region of Alberta, Canada

“…Overall, the nematodes represented four families: Alloionematidae, Diplogastridae, Panagrolaimidae and Rhabditidae. The most common family Rhabditidae is a large family with many genera associated with slugs, including Rhabditis , Caenorhabditis and Phasmarhabditis (Grewal et al ., 2003; Pieterse et al ., 2017). Most of the nematodes we recovered were likely either free-living or phoretic on the slugs, with the exception of P. californica , which is a facultative parasite of slugs (Tandingan De Ley et al ., 2016).…”

“…Thus far, nematodes belonging to nine families have been found in association with slugs as phoretic or definitive hosts. These include: Agfidae, Alloionematidae, Angiostomatidae, Alaninematidae, Ascaridae, Cosmocercidae, Diplogastridae, Mermithidae and Rhabditidae (Pieterse et al ., 2017). The nematode that has gained greatest interest due to its commercialization as a biological control agent is Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Schneider) Andrássy.…”

Nutritional ecology of predaceous Tetanocera elata larvae and the physiological effects of alternative prey utilisation

“…hermaphrodita parasitises a range of slug species, they are not universally effective (Dankowska 2006;Rae et al 2007;Pieterse et al 2017) with larger hosts often able to withstand or recover from infection (Speiser et al 2001).…”

Angiostoma norvegicum n. sp. (Nematoda: Angiostomatidae) a parasite of arionid slugs in Norway

“…International surveys conducted in Europe, North America, Australasia and Africa (Ross et al, 2016), indicate that there are eight families of nematodes that use terrestrial molluscs as definitive hosts, i.e. the Agfidae Dougherty, 1955, Alaninematidae Théodoridés, 1957, Alloionematidae Chitwood & McIntosh, 1934, Angiostomatidae Blanchard, 1895, Cosmocercidae Railliet, 1916, Diplogastridae Micoletzky, 1922, Mermithidae Braun, 1883 and Rhabditidae Örley, 1880 (see Pieterse et al, 2016; Ross et al, 2016). …”