Neo-Entrepreneurship as an Adaptation Model of Reindeer Herding in Finland

Abstract

Reindeer herding is an old and impressively adapted livelihood .supporting a I unique cultural continuity of both Sami and Finnish populations in northern Finland. Through centuries both have adapted to the changing social, cultural and ecological circumstances. This article focuses on reindeer herders as active conformists who try to adapt personally and communally to changing environments. The main focus is on the adaptation models of full-time reindeer herders and especially on the rather new cultural trait that is called neo-entrepreneurship in this article as distinct from traditional reindeer husbandry as economic behaviour. The current discourse in Finland concerning reindeer herding has focused on resolving conflicts between herding and the other land use forms, such as forestry, tourism, nature conservation, hydropower and infrastructure development (Raitio 2001;Heikkinen 2003; Jokinen 2005). This article focuses instead on reindeer herders as active conformists who try to adapt personally and communally to changing eeonomic. cultural and ecological environments.

Past and Present Winter Feeding of Reindeer in Finland: Herders’ Adaptive Learning of Feeding Practices

“…The eastern herding tradition, which originated in the practices used by Forest, Inari, and Skolt Sámi and later by Finnish peasants, differed in many respects from the western practice. Eastern practitioners herded reindeer on a smaller scale and combined herding with other livelihoods, such as hunting, fishing, and farming (Heikkinen, 2006). Forest Sámi used reindeer mainly as draught animals for transport.…”

“…Forest Sámi used reindeer mainly as draught animals for transport. They did not adopt the yearly nomadic herding cycle or milk reindeer, and their animals grazed freely until the roundups in early winter (Paulaharju, 1927;Itkonen, 1948;Kortesalmi, 1996Kortesalmi, , 2007Heikkinen, 2006).…”

“…Winter pastures have become fragmented and have declined in number and quality for several reasons: Finland's cession of territory to the Soviet Union after the Second World War; the requirements of the forest and energy industries, mining, and agriculture; and the construction of transportation networks. Overgrazing caused by high reindeer densities and inadequate or lacking pasture rotation systems has also greatly contributed to the trend (Forbes et al, 2006;Heikkinen, 2006;Kortesalmi, 2007;Mattila and Mikkola, 2009;Kumpula et al, 2011;Jaakkola et al, 2013). The marked reindeer losses of the 1960s and 1970s were due to poor digging conditions caused by deep snow cover and ground icing or to moldy vegetation (Helle and Saastamoinen, 1979;Kumpula et al, 2000;Vuojala-Magga et al, 2011).…”

“…Reindeer numbers then peaked in the 1980s as a result of extensive herding, favorable weather and snow conditions (FMI, 2013;RHA, 2013), the adoption of a slaughter system focusing on calves, and antiparasite medication. Moreover, the number of animals slaughtered was reduced, as demand for meat fell, e.g., because of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident in 1986 (Heikkinen, 2006;Vuojala-Magga et al, 2011). The large herd at the time led to severe overgrazing of winter pastures, which-together with forest cutting-increased pressure to use feeding (Kortesalmi, 2007).…”

Resonance Strategies of Sámi Reindeer Herders in Northernmost Finland during Climatically Extreme Years

“…These changes can have both positive and negative effects on reindeer pastures and reindeer herding (Weladji and Holland, 2006;Moen, 2008;Rattenbury et al, 2009;Turunen et al, 2009). Mechanization of reindeer herding, regulation of meat production, antiparasite medication, supplementary feeding, and other factors have raised the cost of reindeer herding during the past decades (e.g., Heikkinen, 2002Heikkinen, , 2006Jernslettern and Klokov, 2002;Forbes et al, 2006). The response of reindeer herding to changes in both climate and socio-economic circumstances in the four countries of northern Fennoscandia has recently been discussed by Rees et al (2008).…”