“…Bilevel optimization has drawn significant attention from the machine learning (ML) community due to its wide applications in ML including meta-learning (Finn et al, 2017;Rajeswaran et al, 2019), automated hyperparameter optimization (Franceschi et al, 2018;Feurer & Hutter, 2019), reinforcement learning (Konda & Tsitsiklis, 1999;Hong et al, 2020), adversarial learning (Zhang et al, 2022;Liu et al, 2021a), signal processing (Kunapuli et al, 2008) and AI-aware communication networks (Ji & Ying, 2023). Existing studies on bilevel optimization have mainly focused on the single-machine scenario.…”