Neurite Outgrowth Inhibition by Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan: Stalling/Stopping Exceeds Turning in Human Neuroblastoma Growth Cones

Repellent Guidance of Regenerating Optic Axons by Chondroitin Sulfate Glycosaminoglycans in Zebrafish

“…Soluble CSs promote the growth of optic axons of goldfish (Challacombe and Elam, 1997). This underscores that the axonal reaction to CSs (Snow and Letourneau, 1992;Snow et al, 1996;Hynds and Snow, 1999) and also to other matrix molecules, such as tenascins (Lochter et al, 1991Lochter and Schachner, 1993;Pesheva et al, 1993;Taylor et al, 1993), depends on the way the molecules are presented to the axons (as a homogeneous or step gradient substrate or soluble in the culture medium). The complex reactions of developing optic axons in slice cultures of the optic chiasm of mice (Chung et al, 2000) to the removal of CSs may be related to the potential role of the spatial configuration in which the molecules are encountered in a specific CNS structure.…”

“…In yet others, there is a complex distribution of CSs in the pathway of growing axons (Fernaud-Espinosa et al, 1996;Wilson and Snow, 2000), which led to the suggestion that CSs may anchor other molecules that guide axons in the extracellular matrix (Emerling and Lander, 1996). Finally, in vitro experiments indicate that reactions of developing axons to CSs depend on the mode by which the glycans are presented (soluble, homogeneous, or as a step gradient; Snow and Letourneau, 1992;Challacombe and Elam, 1997;Hynds and Snow, 1999), on the composition of CS side chains (Faissner et al, 1994;Braunewell et al, 1995;Clement et al, 1998;Nadanaka et al, 1998), and on the neuronal cell type analyzed (Snow and Letourneau, 1992;FernaudEspinosa et al, 1994;Dou and Levine, 1995).…”

GM-CSF inhibits glial scar formation and shows long-term protective effect after spinal cord injury

“…CSPGs can actively inhibit neurite outgrowth and neural regeneration after CNS injury as well as function as a physical barrier [35][36][37][38][39]. CSPGs consist of a protein core and covalently coupled glycosaminoglycans (CS-GAGs).…”

Regeneration beyond the glial scar

“…The inhibitory nature of the proteoglycan-containing lanes can repel embryonic as well as adult axons, and the effect can last for more than a week in vitro. The turning behaviour is not usually mediated by collapse of the entire growth cone, but rather by selective retraction of FILOPODIA in contact with CSPG and enhanced motility of those on laminin 66,67 . CSPGs are potent inhibitors of a wide variety of other growth-promoting molecules, including fibronectin and L1 (REFS 68,69).…”