Neuro-Ethics of “Walking” in the Newborn

Abstract

The newborn has protective mechanisms against most overstimulation through the special sense modalities. By contrast, he is forced to react with stereotyped motion when his reflexes, e.g., the “walking” and placing reflexes, are elicited through “exercises” and at times even beyond the normal prevalence of the “walking” reflex (until 8 wk. of age). This interferes with the normal newborn's phases of motor quiescence and of reflex inhibition probably due to cortical inhibition. Questions are raised about long-range neurological implications of such an overemphasis on the lowest level of motor integration at a time when not even the pyramidal tracts have matured sufficiently to make voluntary walking possible. Clinical observations by Simpkiss and Raikes pointed to detrimental effects of too early use of “baby-walkers” even at 3 mo. of age.

Effects of body build and arousal on newborn infant stepping

“…Those who believe the reflex disappears because of "disuseyy advocate intervention to accelerate motor development (Bower, 1976;Konner, 1973;Zelazo, 1976;Zelazo et al, 1972). Those who take the more traditional view argue that prolonging a primitive reflex may actually retard motor development by competing with voluntary control and may even lead to neuromuscular damage (Gotts, 1972;Pontius, 1973;Simpkiss & Raikes, 1972). …”

Exploring the Origin of Neuroethics: From the Viewpoints of Expression and Concepts

“…First, the conceptual schema of neuroethics originates from multiple views of neuroscience and humanity studies such as bioethics, medical ethics, philosophy of mind, and research ethics and so on, as suggested by the target article and other academic articles (Cranford 1989;Fins 2008;Pontius 1973). Second, in addition to the medical aspects of premodern neuroethics, pediatric research ethics may serve as another important factor for formulating the framework of modern neuroethics, referred to as "pediatric neuroethics" by Illes and Raffin (2005).…”

Neuroethics: Ethics of Science and Science of Ethics

“…The word neuroethics was used for the first time in 1973 by Anneliese A. Pontius, a Harvard neuropsychiatrist, in an article published in the journal Perceptual and Motor Skills to describe the negative consequences associated with early walking as an attempt to accelerate motor development in infants (Pontius, 1973). Additional meanings have been associated to this word in the following years.…”