New geographies of conservation and globalisation: the spatiality of development for conservation in the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa

The role of institutions in the production of space for tourism: National Forest Parks in China

“…Key words derived from the ideology for NFPs covered wood harvesting, economic diversification, modern forestry, ecological cultivation, wellbeing and conservation. Results of this research supported the connotation that tourism development is an essentially political concept, which will have a substantial impact on the production of space as being reductive in its practice (Hall, 1998;Hansen, 2013;Lefebvre, 2003;Roth, 2008). In addition, this research identified that institutional change in NFPs mirrors that national parks are not "pure" nature (Mels, 2002), but rather the result of a complex interaction between the state, capital and society driven by institutional shifts in policy at a national level.…”

“…The representation of space was analyzed using policy documents (Buser, 2012;Frisvoll, 2012;Hansen, 2013;Leary, 2013;Lefebvre, 1991;Nguyen and Locke, 2014). Indeed, with the gradual adjustment to national development strategies this research found that forestry development strategies for NFPs transformed and continually created "idealized conceptions of spatial order" (Harms, 2011: 238).…”

“…For instance, Roth (2008) argues for the reconceptualization of spatial conflict among parks and people, noting the production of space should be viewed not as a process whereby state (abstract) space erases or destroys local (complex) space, but as a moment of spatial reorganization resulting from the continual process of state and local spatial production. Hansen (2013) noted that in Thailand spatial conflict often emerges through tensions between the imposed conservation objectives of World Heritage Sites and the subjective space of users and inhabitants. Yrigoy (2014) found that the "spatial fix" of capital could not be explained without including the state and local agencies in tourism.…”

“…However, capital has been found to have the potential to produce space solely to produce a profit (Yrigoy, 2014). Market-based modernization and economic growth strategies have been critiqued as viewing land as a commodity, rather than as a social-ecological resource for livelihood generation (Hansen, 2013;Lefebvre, 1991;Roth, 2008). Inquiry has also centered on the potential dichotomy between state and society, with flexible spatial strategies demonstrated to strengthen social relationships between local communities and state conservation agencies (Roth, 2008).…”

“…Yrigoy (2014) found that the "spatial fix" of capital could not be explained without including the state and local agencies in tourism. Thus, institutional mechanisms need to be created to encourage active state and community participation in tourism planning and governance (Hansen, 2013;Roth, 2008;Ye et al, 2014;Yrigoy, 2014).…”