“…Groundwater is not only an essential guarantee of water for human production and life (Huang et al, 2022; Shi et al, 2021) but also has an irreplaceable role in the oasis (Lozano et al, 2013). In the arid zone of northwest China, vegetation in artificial and natural oases is strongly dependent on groundwater (Gries et al, 2003; Martinetti et al, 2021; Tamea et al, 2009), providing vegetation water demand (Wang, Wang, et al, 2018; Wang, Yu, et al, 2018), regulating soil water content (Cao et al, 2021), salinity (Wang et al, 2013), and balancing water use in abundant and dry years (Gao et al, 2020; Wada et al, 2012; Wang et al, 2023). However, climate change (Devkota & Gyawali, 2015; Shrestha et al, 2017; Tan et al, 2017) enhanced the impacts of human activities (Riley et al, 2019; Scanlon et al, 2005), turning groundwater evolution more complex.…”