Next-generation influenza vaccines: opportunities and challenges

Abstract

Vaccination represents an efficient and cost-effective way to contain influenza epidemics and preserve public health. Since their introduction in the 1940s, seasonal influenza vaccines have saved countless lives and limited pandemic spread. Influenza viruses nonetheless continue to evolve through genetic mutation and escape from natural immunity, and vaccines must be updated yearly. The protective efficacy of the current licensed vaccines varies each year (Fig. 1a), depending on the antigenic match between circulating viruses and vaccine strains. The immune status of the host can also affect vaccine efficacy. For example, young and elderly individuals are more susceptible to the complications of influenza infection [1][2][3] .New influenza viruses have precipitated pandemics several times over the past 100 years, specifically in 1918, 1957, 1968 and 2009 (reF. 4 ). The threat of the reemergence of old pandemic viruses and the emergence of novel viruses with pandemic potential underscore the need for durable and broadly protective influenza vaccines. Advances in immunology and virology, together with information from structural biology and bioinformatics, are facilitating the development of novel vaccine approaches [5][6][7][8] . Of particular interest are human broadly neutralizing antibodies directed to conserved viral structures. These antibodies arise naturally and can also be elicited through immunization .Current licensed influenza vaccines contain either in activated or live attenuated influenza viruses. Most in activated vaccines consist of split viruses or subunit influenza antigens (Table 1). Split vaccines are produced by disrupting viral particles with chemicals or detergents Haemagglutinin (Ha). a homotrimeric glycoprotein found on the surface of influenza virus particles responsible for the recognition of the host target cell through the binding of sialic acid-containing receptors.

Measurement of Cellular Immune Response to Viral Infection and Vaccination

“…The inactivated virus vaccine may have lost the capability of the wild type virus to induce complete maturation and activation of dendritic cells, necessary to activate T cells optimally. Influenza vaccination not always induces satisfactory immunity and addition of an adjuvant compound to TIV was reported to increase immunogenicity (61)(62)(63). More recently, for this reason adjuvant-containing influenza vaccines have been introduced to increase influenza immunity in the aging population (64).…”

Irradiation by a Combination of Different Peak-Wavelength Ultraviolet-Light Emitting Diodes Enhances the Inactivation of Influenza A Viruses

“…Unlike viral RNA, HA titer of H1N1 subtype was not changed by UV irradiations in this study (Figure 3). HA is a target for vaccines for IAVs because antibodies against HA are a major component of the human immune response and influenza vaccination [35]. Some studies showed that UV-inactivated viruses, including coronaviruses, were useful for the vaccines [36,37], but the studies about vaccines using UV-inactivated influenza viruses were scarcely reported [38].…”

Rapid Response to Pandemic Threats: Immunogenic Epitope Detection of Pandemic Pathogens for Diagnostics and Vaccine Development Using Peptide Microarrays

“…Despite influenza vaccines being available, the high rate of mutation requires a constant redesign. 101 , 102 The versatile application of peptide microarrays in unraveling epitope-specific antibody responses, drug and vaccine development approaches for influenza are highlighted by several studies. 50 − 55 …”