Nobody farms here anymore: Livelihood diversification in the Amazonian community of Carvão, a historical perspective

Abstract

Over the past 15 years income sources in the Amazonian community of Carvão have diversified to include government salaries, retirement and welfare benefits, and wages from an evolving informal service sector. These non-farm incomes are now more important to household incomes than the sale of agricultural products. Out of 80 households only three families were found to depend almost entirely on the sale of agricultural goods for cash income. Agriculture is still a part of most familiesÕ livelihoods; however, production today is mainly a subsistence activity. Recent changes in Carvão are consistent with trends of livelihood diversification observed in rural societies across the globe. However, current research reveals that Carvão is different from other case studies in a number of ways. A history of livelihoods illustrates that residents in Carvão have always engaged in a range of activities, including farming, extractive activities, and wage labor. New incomes are the result of new jobs in the public sector and social policies benefiting the rural poor. In contrast to the literature on livelihood diversification, the decentralization of the federal government in Brazil has resulted in greater opportunities for rural income and employment. Consistent with recorded trends, research shows that small farmers in Carvão have down-sized agricultural production. Farmers cite low market prices (the result of vertical integration of local markets) as one cause of this decline. Residents, especially small farmers, interested in diversifying agricultural production are limited by inadequate extension services and credit, and younger residents seek public sector employment. Income diversification has increased livelihoods security; however, future livelihoods will depend on new economic growth. Given the stagnating public sector and a weak industrial sector, production geared toward growing urban markets is a viable means for further income generation in Carvão.

Differences in Manioc Diversity Among Five Ethnic Groups of the Colombian Amazon

“…However, the permanent threats to the conservation of the Amazon Basin, together with the pressure to integrate indigenous people in currently prevailing economic models severely increases the risk of loss of indigenous crop diversity [11,51]. For this reason, it is expedient to understand the drivers of current manioc diversity and to locate manioc variability hotspots.…”

Drivers of rural exodus from Amazonian headwaters

“…This has important implications for both the delivery and impact of government-led cash transfer initiatives. Public salaries and subsidies are increasingly important for rural communities in the Brazilian Amazon (Steward 2007). Current efforts to pursue forest conservation and development in the Amazon also focus on regular subsidy to forest-dwelling families, in the form of a monthly payment for ecosystem services (e.g.…”

Transforming river basins: Post-livelihood transition agricultural landscapes and implications for natural resource governance

“…Agricultural productivity per hectare rose steeply across the various non-farm income ranges and non-farm activities did not result in neglect of farming activities. Hired labor replacing family labor following remittances and off-farm incomes, was also reported from various Latin American localities (Isakson, 2009;Steward, 2007). Off-farm income sponsored agricultural investments that include high yielding variety seeds, increased use of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals, irrigation infrastructure and agricultural mechanization resulting in increased cropping intensity and productivity are being reported from various regions in Africa and Latin America (DeFries and Rosenzweig, 2010; Yarnall and Price, 2010).…”