Nomenclature of the electrophysiologically tested sacral reflexes

Epidemiology of cauda equina and conus medullaris lesions

“…The diagnosis of a cauda equina or conus medullaris lesion was established according to: (1) a history of an appropriate causal event followed by the onset of lower‐limb, bladder, bowel, or sexual dysfunction; (2) clinical examination, revealing reduced resting and voluntary anal sphincter squeeze, sacral sensory loss, or, in men, a diminished penilo‐cavernosus reflex1, 9; (3) electromyographic (EMG) signs of denervation (3–10 weeks after the event) or EMG signs of reinnervation (at least 3 months after the event) in sacral myotomes6, 7; (4) abnormal results on neurophysiological measurement of the sacral (penilo/clitoro‐cavernosus) reflex14; and (5) radiological findings of central disk herniation, spinal fracture, spinal tumor, or other relevant lumbosacral intraspinal pathology. The diagnosis of a cauda equina or conus medullaris lesion was based on clinical judgment, and included patients who did not need to fulfill all the aforementioned criteria.…”

Clinical and neurophysiologic testing of the penilo‐cavernosus reflex

“…The aim of the present study was to assess the increase in sensitivity obtained by clinical and neurophysiologic testing of the penilo-cavernosus reflex 3 following neurologic examination focused on the sacral segments. The study was performed in a group of men with well-defined chronic neurogenic lesions (i.e., patients with cauda equina or conus medullaris lesions).…”

Sphincter electromyography and the penilo‐cavernosus reflex: Are both necessary?

“…The aim of the present study was to assess the sensitivity of quantitative concentric needle EMG of the external anal sphincter (EAS) muscles (sacral myotomes), of neurophysiologic measurement of the penilo-cavernosus reflex, 3 and of a diagnostic protocol that includes both of these tests. The study group comprised men with chronic cauda equina or conus medullaris lesions.…”