“…In general, it is currently possible to use the SIET or MIFE system to measure net fluxes of ions (such as H + , Ca 2+ , K + , Na + , Cl − , Mg 2+ , NH 4 + , NO 3 − , Cd 2+ ) as well as gaseous molecules (such as O 2 and NO) and other compounds (indoleacetic acid, IAA) in real time in various biological systems (Pineros et al 1998;McLamore et al 2009;Wu et al 2010;Ramos et al 2009;Mancuso et al 2005;Mancuso et al 2000). To our knowledge, only a Cd 2+ liquid-membrane ion selective microelectrode (ISME) was routinely applied in the root system (Pineros et al 1998;Farrell et al 2005;Li et al 2012), although several other heavy metal ions (e.g.…”