Nonlinear refinement of functional brain connectivity in golf players of different skill levels

Abstract

Different functional connectivities in the brain, specifically in the frontoparietal and motor cortex–sensorimotor circuits, have been associated with superior performance in athletes. However, previous electroencephalogram (EEG) studies have only focused on the frontoparietal circuit and have not provided a comprehensive understanding of the cognitive–motor processes underlying superior performance. We used EEG coherence analysis to examine the motor cortex–sensorimotor circuit in golfers of different skill levels. Twenty experts, 18 amateurs, and 21 novices performed 60 putts at individual putting distances (40–60% success rate). The imaginary inter-site phase coherence (imISPC) was used to compute 8–13 Hz coherence that can be used to distinguish expert-novice and expert-amateur differences during motor preparation. We assessed the 8–13 Hz imISPC between the Cz and F3, F4, C3, C4, T3, T4, P3, P4, O1, and O2 regions. (1) Amateurs had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC in the central regions (Cz–C3 and C4) than novices and experts, but experts had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC than novices. (2) Skilled golfers (experts and amateurs) had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC in the central–parietal regions (Cz–P3 and P4) than novices. (3) Experts had lower 8–13 Hz imISPC in the central–left temporal regions (Cz–T7) than amateurs and novices. Our study revealed that refinement of the motor cortex–sensorimotor circuit follows a U-shaped coherence pattern based on the stage of learning. The early learning stage (i.e., novice to amateur) is characterized by lower connectivity between the regions associated with motor control and visuospatial processes, whereas the late learning stage (i.e., amateur to expert) is characterized by lower connectivity in the regions associated with verbal-analytic and motor control processes.

A longitudinal study of the effect of visuomotor learning on functional brain connectivity

“…To ensure that each participant's performance changed across the stages of learning in our longitudinal design, we adopted three occasions beginning with an early practice measurement as baseline measurement (Time 1), middle practice measurement as 50% improvement from baseline (Time 2), and late practice measurement as 100% improvement from baseline (Time 3). In addition, recruiting novices as participants to perform a complex visuomotor skill (i.e., golf putting) could extend the previous findings (Chen, Wang, Huang, et al, 2022;Deeny et al, 2009;Kerick et al, 2004) and specify the neuromotor processes underlying visual-motor integration learning. In previous neuroimaging studies, the dynamic reorganization of the motor cortex-sensorimotor circuit (e.g., the central regions in EEG: Cz-C3 and Cz-C4) during different stages of motor skill learning has been observed (Dayan & Cohen, 2011;Hikosaka et al, 2002;Sun et al, 2007).…”

“…Deeny et al suggested that superior performance was characterized by having less cognitive interference in motor planning and visuospatial attention. In addition, Chen, Wang, Huang, et al (2022) observed that the refinement of the motor cortex-sensorimotor circuit (Cz-C3 and Cz-C4) follows a U-shaped coherence pattern in 8-13 Hz based on different stages of learning (i.e., novices, amateurs, and experts). Chen et al suggested that dynamic reorganization of the motor cortex-sensorimotor circuit is associated with superior skilled performance.…”

“…This pre-action neural activity can differentiate between different skill levels and track skill development. Furthermore, the utilization of the 3-s period preceding an action in a visuomotor task, such as golf, can facilitate EEG recording, as it allows for the requirement of maintaining motionlessness during data collection (Chen, Wang, Chang, et al, 2022;Chen, Wang, Huang, et al, 2022;Cooke et al, 2014;Gallicchio et al, 2017;Wang et al, 2020;Wang, Frank, et al, 2022). For example, Chen, Wang, Huang, et al (2022) and Cooke et al (2014), who recruited golf players of different skill levels (i.e., novice, amateur, and expert), observed that the neural activity in 3-s period preceding an action could distinguish the cognitive-motor processes associated with superior performance.…”

“…Furthermore, the utilization of the 3-s period preceding an action in a visuomotor task, such as golf, can facilitate EEG recording, as it allows for the requirement of maintaining motionlessness during data collection (Chen, Wang, Chang, et al, 2022;Chen, Wang, Huang, et al, 2022;Cooke et al, 2014;Gallicchio et al, 2017;Wang et al, 2020;Wang, Frank, et al, 2022). For example, Chen, Wang, Huang, et al (2022) and Cooke et al (2014), who recruited golf players of different skill levels (i.e., novice, amateur, and expert), observed that the neural activity in 3-s period preceding an action could distinguish the cognitive-motor processes associated with superior performance. Furthermore, intervention studies supported this finding, Gallicchio et al (2017) and Wang, Frank, et al (2022) observed that the neural activity in 3 s before action is associated with the acquisition of visuomotor skill and expertise.…”

“…Fortunately, electroencephalogram (EEG), which can detect a brain response in milliseconds, can compensate for the limitations of fMRI and can be used to capture a highly dynamic neural connectivity in the two circuits underlying the acquisition of visuomotor skills in 3 s before action (Chen, Wang, Huang, et al, 2022;Deeny et al, 2003Deeny et al, , 2009Wang et al, 2020;Wang, Frank, et al, 2022). Previous studies have utilized EEG coherence within the alpha frequency band (i.e., 8-13 Hz), which is known to be the dominant frequency in the human scalp EEG of adults, to investigate the functional connectivity of two parallel loop circuits among performers at varying skill levels, including novices, amateurs, and experts (Chen, Wang, Huang, et al, 2022;Deeny et al, 2003Deeny et al, , 2009Wang et al, 2019). Generally, EEG coherence analysis for sport performance measures the degree of covariation between the levels of activation recorded from two electrode sites.…”