Nonspecific effects of exposure on stimuli that cannot be recognized.

Mandler, George; Nakamura, Yoshio; Zandt, Billie Jo Shebo Van

doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.4.646

Cited by 297 publications

(340 citation statements)

References 17 publications

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“…Nevertheless, on twoalternative forced-choice tests of preference, comparing previously exposed and nonexposed stimuli, subjects prefer the previously exposed stimuli on about 60% of choices. First reported by Kunst- Wilson and Zajonc (1980), this result has been replicated by several investigators in various laboratories (e.g., Bonanno & Stillings, 1986;Mandler, Nakamura, & Van Zandt, 1987;Seamon, Marsh, & Brody, 1984; reviewed recently by Bornstein, in press). These studies generally have not included extensive testing to establish the detectability characteristics of exposure condition^.^ Several investigators have sought a visual subliminal aflective conditioning result, characterized by the transfer of affect from a briefly flashed stimulus (an affectively positive or negative word, smiling or frowning face, or an emotion-arousing scene) to a fully visible neutral stimulus.…”

Section: Subliminal Activation Researchmentioning

confidence: 63%

New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed.

Greenwald

1992

American Psychologist

526

309

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Recent research has established several empirical results that are widely agreed to merit description in terms of unconscious cognition. These findings come from experiments that use indirect tests for immediate or long-term residues of barely perceptible, perceptible-but-unattended, or attended-but-forgotten events. Importantly, these wellestablished phenomena-insofar as they occur without initially involving focal attention-are limited to relatively minor cognitive feats. Unconscious cognition is now solidly established in empirical research, but it appears to be intellectually much simpler than the sophisticated agency portrayed in psychoanalytic theory. The strengthened position of unconscious cognitive phenomena can be related to their jit with the developing neural network (connectionist) theoretical framework in psychology.for a simpler (cognitively less sophisticated) view of unconscious cognition than that of psychoanalytic theory.

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Section: Subliminal Activation Researchmentioning

confidence: 63%

New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed.

Greenwald

1992

American Psychologist

526

309

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“…Humans have lower perceptual identification thresholds for previously seen stimuli (Tulving & Schachter, 1990); therefore, a prime that is perceptually similar or equal to a later presented target will enhance the processing of the target by influencing the speed and accuracy of perceptual identification (Bar & Biederman, 1998;Jacoby, 1983;Jacoby & Dallas, 1981;Mandler et al, 1987;Winkielman et al, 2003). This will increase the likelihood of attending features with characteristics that are identical or similar to those of the recently seen prime (Kristjánsson & Campana, 2010).…”

Section: The Effects Of In-store Signage On Customers' Visual Attentimentioning

confidence: 99%

Vision (im)possible? The effects of in-store signage on customers’ visual attention

Otterbring

Wästlund

Gustafsson

et al. 2014

Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services

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We used two eye-tracking field experiments to investigate the extent to which in-store signage is used during navigation and decision making, and how the viewing of signage influences customers' visual attention and choice behavior. One hundred and seventy-five customers at a grocery store were exposed to signage stimuli while carrying out predefined shopping tasks. Experiment 1 shows that attention toward signage is affected by customers' levels of store familiarity and in-store search stage (navigation vs. decision making).Experiment 2 demonstrates that signage has a considerable impact on the direction and magnitude of customers' visual attention during decision making.

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“…In this way, the pattern of results that R&M interpret as bias in identifying the test word would be obtained, but the results would be the product of another source, that is, a preference attached to the repeated alternative. Note, prior studies have obtained priming for stimuli presented in a forced choice procedure at test (e.g., Dorfman, 1994;Mandler, Nakamura, & Van Zandt, 1987;Zajonc, 1980), and similar priming may occur here as well. If indeed repetition priming for the alternatives affects performance in this task, the procedure cannot be used to address the bias vs. sensitivity debate.…”

Section: Alternative Explanation For the Randm (1997) Findingsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Priming is not all bias: Commentary on Ratcliff and McKoon (1997).

Bowers¹

1999

Psychological Review

101

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visual word priming 2 Abstract R. reported a set of findings they claim are inconsistent with all prior accounts of long-term priming, including (1) a pattern of benefits and costs in an identification task suggestive of a bias interpretation of priming, and (2) a restriction on priming such that benefits and costs are only obtained when the alternatives in the forced-choice task are similar. Based on these and related findings, the authors developed a bias theory of visual word priming that is implemented in a mathematical model. However, it is shown that their empirical findings are ambiguous and can be explained more parsimoniously within more traditional frameworks. Furthermore, eight studies are reported that directly contradict their model. On the basis of these and related findings, it is argued that priming is best understood as a by-product of learning within perceptual systems whose main function is to categorize inputs. visual word priming 3 Visual word priming often reflects perceptual learning rather than perceptual bias:Reply to Ratcliff and McKoon (1997) Long-term priming is one of the more widely studied phenomena in cognitive psychology during the past 20 years (see Roediger & McDermott, 1993, for an extensive review that includes over 300 references on the topic since 1980). On the standard view, long-term priming reflects a facilitation in processing a stimulus as a consequence of having encountered the same stimulus in an earlier episode. So for example, participants are more accurate in identifying a quickly flashed word in a perceptual identification task if it was studied a few minutes or hours previously (e.g., Jacoby & Dallas, 1981). The longevity of this priming distinguishes it from various forms of short term priming phenomena --such as semantic or masked priming --that tend to last a few seconds (e.g., Henderson, Wallis, & Knight, 1984;Forster & Davis, 1984; but for exceptions to this general rule, see Becker, Moscovitch, Behrmann, & Joordens, 1997;.In a recent series of articles, Ratcliff and McKoon (R&M) have challenged the common view that priming reflects a facilitation in processing test stimuli, and argued instead that priming is a bias to interpret test items as previously studied materials (McKoon & Ratcliff, 1995, 1996Ratcliff, Allbritton, McKoon, 1997;Ratcliff, McKoon, 1995, 1996, Ratcliff, McKoon, Verwoerd, 1989. That is, rather than simply reflecting a benefit in processing repeated materials, priming is interpreted as a mixture of benefits for repeated and costs for related study/test items, with costs equaling benefits. So for example, in a perceptual identification task these authors developed, a test word such as cable is flashed, immediately followed by two alternative words, e.g., table and cable. Participants are asked to select the alternative that matches the flashed word. In this example, benefits tend to be observed when cable was studied in an earlier episode, and cost when table was studied. Accordingly, the greater accuracy in correctly identifying repeated...

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Nonspecific effects of exposure on stimuli that cannot be recognized.

Cited by 297 publications

References 17 publications

New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed.

New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed.

Vision (im)possible? The effects of in-store signage on customers’ visual attention

Priming is not all bias: Commentary on Ratcliff and McKoon (1997).

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