Normal human craniofacial growth and development from 0 to 4 years

Abstract

Knowledge of human craniofacial growth (increase in size) and development (change in shape) is important in the clinical treatment of a range of conditions that affects it. This study uses an extensive collection of clinical CT scans to investigate craniofacial growth and development over the first 48 months of life, detail how the cranium changes in form (size and shape) in each sex and how these changes are associated with the growth and development of various soft tissues such as the brain, eyes and tongue and the expansion of the nasal cavity. This is achieved through multivariate analyses of cranial form based on 3D landmarks and semi-landmarks and by analyses of linear dimensions, and cranial volumes. The results highlight accelerations and decelerations in cranial form changes throughout early childhood. They show that from 0 to 12 months, the cranium undergoes greater changes in form than from 12 to 48 months. However, in terms of the development of overall cranial shape, there is no significant sexual dimorphism in the age range considered in this study. In consequence a single model of human craniofacial growth and development is presented for future studies to examine the physio-mechanical interactions of the craniofacial growth.

Facial growth and development trajectories based on three-dimensional images: geometric morphometrics with a deformation perspective

“…Our study suggests sexual dimorphism in facial shape emerges at 6 years of age. The literature regarding sex difference in facial shape prior to 5 years of age is inconclusive [ 3 , 16 ]. Our findings reveal that sexual dimorphism increases nonlinearly with age and supports Enlow and Hans’ hypothesis that sexually dimorphic facial features become apparent during female pubertal growth spurt [ 17 ].…”

Craniofacial phenotyping with fetal MRI: a feasibility study of 3D visualisation, segmentation, surface-rendered and physical models

“…Whilst this study has focused on the qualitative evaluation of the output similar to current radiological practice, there are opportunities to quantitatively assess fetal craniofacial development [65]. Craniofacial research is an active area of exploration in the neonatal and paediatric patient groups with 3D morphometric and shape analysis performed with 3D imaging, 2D and 3D photogrammetry [66][67][68] and emerging prenatal methods have been proposed [60]. Nonetheless, 3D landmark placement for quantitative assessment of our surface craniofacial models would be subject to interobserver variability due to the fine details of the structures and the wide range of resultant model quality.…”

Pediatric Craniofacial Tumor Reconstruction

“…12 Growth patterns are well defined in the literature and demonstrate minimal dimorphism before age 4 years. [12][13][14][15] Although later developmental landmarks vary between studies, they provide valuable insight into the impact of surgical intervention on future growth and emphasize the importance of meticulous consideration of reconstructive strategies.…”