Normalization of violence among inner-city youth: A formulation for research.

Abstract

A causal model is formulated for the thesis that in inner-city youth exposed to high levels of violence, cognitions that normalize violence mitigate affective effects of exposure while increasing risk for violent behavior, thus perpetuating violence in the very process of adapting to it psychologically. Gender differences in the cognitive normalization of violence may explain gender differences in affective and behavioral effects of exposure. Empirical studies are needed to directly test this model.

The Role of Psychopathy and Exposure to Violence in Rape Myth Acceptance

“…Individuals that witness violence in their environment might also learn that it is not against moral standards to obtain goals, and to expect positive outcomes of using aggression (Bandura, 1999;Farrington, 1991;Ng-Mak, Stueve, Salzinger, & Feldman, 2002 The lack of direct effect of Erratic Lifestyle and Antisocial Behaviour factors of psychopathy on rape myth acceptance in the present study is also inconsistent with research by Mouilso & Calhoun (2013), and the frequently documented association between Lifestyle/Antisocial traits and sexual coercion (Hanson & Bussière, 1998;Hanson & MortonBourgon, 2005;Lalumière & Quinsey, 1996;Serin, Mailloux & Malcolm, 2001). This latter disparity, however, can be accounted for by looking at what the variables represent.…”

Effects of Exposure to Community Violence on Internalizing Symptoms: Does Desensitization to Violence Occur in African American Youth?

“…The desensitization process suggests that youth may begin to "adapt" to violence through adjusting to pain and loss and viewing violence as normal (Cooley-Quille and Lorion 1999;Fitzpatrick and Boldizar 1993). One such model of desensitization is the pathological adaptation model (Ng-Mak et al 2002), which states that youth begin to respond to violence with emotional numbing, evidenced by lower than expected levels of internalizing symptoms (Ng-Mak et al 2004). Very little research has directly examined the pathological adaptation model for exposure to community violence, but some support has been found (Ng-Mak et al 2004).…”

“…However, investigations of the desensitization hypothesis have largely focused on depressive symptoms as a proxy for desensitization (Ng-Mak et al 2002) or combined depressive and anxiety symptoms into one internalizing symptoms variable. The current study extends prior research by examining these associations separately for anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms.…”

Psychopathy, gang membership, and moral disengagement among juvenile offenders

“…Consequently, if violence is common in their environment (i.e., they are exposed to parental physical fighting), they are likely to learn: a) that it is not against moral standards to use violence as a way to defend themselves, to solve problems, or to obtain goals, and b) to expect positive outcomes of using aggression (Bandura, 1999;Farrington, 1991;Ng-Mak, Stueve, Salzinger, & Feldman, 2002). Thus, exposure to parental fighting might lead to the adoption of attitudes and beliefs consistent with moral disengagement.…”