“…Almeida (2018), in a similar vein, states that since the inception of the customs union in 1995, little substantive progress has been made in trade integration, and perhaps more restrictions -both internal and external -have been introduced than promises of trade liberalization have been kept. In this regard, Reid (2021), Martins and Burnquist (2020), and Oliveira, Caldas, and Mota (2020) point out that, in addition to the weak tariff liberalization promoted by the bloc, several obstacles of a non-tariff nature have impeded the advancement of economic integration in Mercosur, leaving clear the imperfections of the customs union, as well as the shortcomings of the free trade area.…”