Number of cues influences the cost of remembering to remember

Cohen, Anna Lisa; Jaudas, Alexander; Gollwitzer, Peter M.

doi:10.3758/mc.36.1.149

Cited by 116 publications

(147 citation statements)

References 23 publications

(45 reference statements)

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“…Thus, the present research converges with those studies examining task interference showing that, in the absence of monitoring (i.e., nonsignificant task interference), individuals may spontaneously retrieve their prospective memory intentions (A.-L. Cohen et al, 2008;Einstein et al, 2005, Experiments 1-4;Scullin et al, 2008). Notably, our paradigm for investigating spontaneous retrieval may have some advantages over the more traditional task interference approach.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 41%

“…On the other hand, if prospective memory retrieval is spontaneous and does not require monitoring for cues at the time the target event is encountered (and immediately preceding the target event), high prospective memory performance can be obtained in the absence of task interference (see the multiprocess theory; McDaniel & Einstein, 2000). The results of research testing for task interference have been mixed (A.-L. Cohen, Jaudus, & Gollwitzer, 2008;Guynn, 2003;Marsh et al, 2003;Smith, 2003;Smith & Bayen, 2004;Smith et al, 2007), suggesting that the parameters of the ongoing and prospective memory tasks may determine whether prospective memory retrieval requires that attentional resources be allocated to the prospective memory task immediately prior to target events (but see Smith et al, 2007, for an alternative explanation).…”

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confidence: 99%

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Evidence for spontaneous retrieval of suspended but not finished prospective memories

2009

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McDaniel and Einstein (2007) argued that prospective memories can be retrieved through spontaneous retrieval processes stimulated by the presence of a target cue. To test this claim, we investigated whether presenting a prospective memory cue during a task that did not require an intention to be performed spontaneously triggered remembering of that intention. In two experiments, participants performed an image-rating task in which a prospective memory task (to press the "Q" key when a target word appeared) was embedded. Then, participants were told that their intention was finished or suspended. Finally, participants performed a lexical decision task in which each target (and a matched control) word appeared. RTs were slower to target words than to control words when the intention was suspended but not when it was finished. These results suggest that target cues associated with suspended intentions can spontaneously trigger remembering but that finished intentions are quickly deactivated.

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Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 41%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Evidence for spontaneous retrieval of suspended but not finished prospective memories

2009

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“…For example, Cohen-Kdoshay and Meiran (2007) showed that their instructed flanker-compatibility effect disappeared with a concurrent load (see also Meiran & Cohen-Kdoshay, 2012). In a similar vein, Cohen, Jaudas, and Gollwitzer (2008) only observed automatic response activation of merely instructed S-R mappings with a restricted number of instructed mappings. This was confirmed by the results of an unpublished experiment that was conducted at our lab.…”

Section: Two Causes Of Task-rule Congruencymentioning

confidence: 88%

Instruction-based task-rule congruency effects.

Liefooghe¹,

Wenke²,

Houwer³

2012

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cogni

108

295

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The present study investigated the functional characteristics of task-sets that were never applied before and were formed only on the basis of instructions. We tested if such task-sets could elicit a task-rule congruency effect, which implies the automatic activation of responses in the context of another task. To this end, a novel procedure was developed that revealed instruction-based task-rule congruency effects in two experiments. Although the effect seems quite general (Experiment 1) it still necessitates the formation of a task-set as it cannot be induced by the mere maintenance of instructions in declarative working memory (Experiment 2). We conclude that a task-set representing only key features of an upcoming task can be formed on the basis of instructions alone to such a degree that it can automatically trigger a response tendency in another task. Implications of our results for the impact of instructions on performance in general, and for the occurrence of task-rule congruency effects in particular, are discussed.Keywords: task-set, task switching, task-rule congruency, instructions INSTRUCTION-BASED TASK-RULE CONGRUENCY EFFECTS 3 Instruction-based task-rule congruency effectsGoal-directed behavior is assumed to be based on task-sets that specify and group the control settings of different task-related processes, such as stimulus identification, response selection, and response execution (e.g., Vandierendonck, Liefooghe, & Verbruggen, 2010).While the functional properties of task-sets have been studied extensively in the taskswitching paradigm (see, Kiesel et al., 2010;Monsell, 2003;Vandierendonck et al., 2010 for reviews), only little is known on how task-sets are formed when the instructions of a particular task are presented. This is surprising because it seems obvious that instructions play an important role, for instance, by indicating which task to perform or how a task must be performed. Accordingly, the present study further investigated the functional characteristics of task-sets formed only on the basis of instructions. We tested if a task-set that is formed on the basis of instructions meant for a particular task that has not yet been executed, can elicit automatic response tendencies despite being irrelevant in the context of another task. This was done by using the task-rule congruency effect. Task-Rule CongruencyThe task-rule congruency effect is a robust finding in task-switching studies that require participants to switch between two tasks (e.g., shape or color judgment) that share stimuli (e.g., colored shapes) and responses (e.g., a left or right response key; see, Kiesel et al., 2010;Monsell, 2003; Vandierendonck et al., 2010 for reviews). Each response thus has two -meanings‖ (e.g., circle and red for the left response and square and green for the right response) and stimuli trigger these two meanings, with one related to the relevant task and the other related to the irrelevant task. The task-rule congruency effect refers to the finding that RTs are shorter when both respo...

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“…If having the intention to respond to a PM cue requires attentional resources, then fewer resources should be available to perform the ongoing task. In line with this rationale, ongoing-task performance is often significantly reduced (mostly in terms of slowing in reaction times [RTs]), when participants perform an ongoing task while holding an intention, as compared to participants who perform the ongoing task alone (Cohen, Jaudas, & Gollwitzer, 2008;Marsh, Hicks, & Cook, 2006b). The degree to which such task interference occurs depends on characteristics of both the ongoing task and the PM task such as the complexity of the ongoing task (Einstein, McDaniel, Williford, Pagan, & Dismukes, 2003) and the time of the occurrence of the PM cue (McBride, Beckner, & Abney, in press).…”

Section: Task Interference From Event-based Intentionsmentioning

confidence: 91%

“…In their first application of the diffusion model to PM data, Horn et al (2011) did not find effects on the t 0 component when comparing a PM task of medium demands (cf. Cohen et al, 2008) with a control group without a PM task. However, Horn and colleagues suggested that with further increased PM demands, participants might start checking for PM cues constantly on each trial in addition to their ongoing-task decision (Guynn, 2003), and these differences in cue checking might be reflected by the t 0 component.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A diffusion model analysis of task interference effects in prospective memory

2011

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Holding an intention often interferes with other ongoing activities, indicating that resource-demanding processes are involved in maintaining the intention and noticing the appropriate event to fulfill it. Little is known, however, about the nature of the processes underlying this task interference effect. The goal of the present research was to decompose the processes contributing to the task interference effect by applying the diffusion model (Ratcliff, Psychological Review 85:59-108, 1978) to an event-based prospective memory task. In the first experiment, we validated the interpretation of the response criterion parameter (a) of the diffusion model as reflecting strategies to cope with the anticipated demands of a prospective memory task in the context of the ongoing task. The second experiment served to investigate which underlying processes contribute to the task interference often found with prospective memory tasks. Diffusion model analyses revealed that the task interference effect was due to (1) less efficient processing in the more demanding than in the less demanding prospective memory task and (2) a more conservative response criterion. We suggest that the anticipated demands and the additional processing demands of the prospective memory task jointly contribute to the task interference effect.

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Number of cues influences the cost of remembering to remember

Cited by 116 publications

References 23 publications

Evidence for spontaneous retrieval of suspended but not finished prospective memories

Evidence for spontaneous retrieval of suspended but not finished prospective memories

Instruction-based task-rule congruency effects.

A diffusion model analysis of task interference effects in prospective memory

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