“…In addition to the aforementioned experimental studies, several theoretical studies have been devoted to characterizing liquid flow and solute transport through clay membranes based on coupled flux theory derived from principles of nonequilibrium (irreversible) thermodynamics (Bader and Kooi, 2005;Dominijanni, 2005;Dominijanni and Manassero, 2012a;Garavito et al, 2002;Greenberg, 1971;Greenberg et al, 1973;Groenevelt and Bolt, 1969;Groenevelt and Elrick, 1976;Groenevelt et al, 1978Groenevelt et al, , 1980Kooi et al, 2003;Lu et al, 2004;Malusis, 2001;Malusis and Shackelford, 2002c;Manassero and Dominijanni, 2003;Mitchell et al, 1973;Olsen et al, 2000;Soler, 2001;Van Impe, 2002;Yeung, 1990;Yeung and Mitchell, 1993). However, the coupled flux formulations in these studies have differed, and the differences have not been elucidated in a comprehensive manner, which can lead to confusion over the validity or applicability of the various formulations.…”