Obesity and malnutrition in children and adults: A clinical review

Zinc, Magnesium and Vitamin K Supplementation in Vitamin D Deficiency: Pathophysiological Background and Implications for Clinical Practice

“…The primary nutritional sources of Mg are the following: whole grains, dark green vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and seafood [ 21 , 22 ]. In the small intestine, only around 30% of the total dietary Mg is absorbed; however, in the case of deficiency, increased absorption may occur through passive diffusion or a saturable transport mechanism.…”

“…Mg functions as a structural or catalytic component of enzymes, as well as of substrates, in hundreds of enzymatic processes. It is involved in numerous processes—ion channel activity and signal transduction, stabilization of membranes, aerobic and anaerobic metabolism, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of cells, and angiogenesis [ 19 , 21 , 23 ]. The potentially beneficial impact of Mg on glucose and lipid metabolism, innate and adaptive immunity, and the nervous system deserves particular attention [ 20 , 21 , 24 , 25 , 26 ].…”

“…It is involved in numerous processes—ion channel activity and signal transduction, stabilization of membranes, aerobic and anaerobic metabolism, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of cells, and angiogenesis [ 19 , 21 , 23 ]. The potentially beneficial impact of Mg on glucose and lipid metabolism, innate and adaptive immunity, and the nervous system deserves particular attention [ 20 , 21 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. A deficiency of Mg is associated with headaches, hyperemotionality, generalized anxiety, insomnia, asthenia, depressive states, muscle weakness, numbness and cramps, exacerbations of bronchial asthma, increased risk of stroke, progression of diabetes mellitus and congestive heart failure, worse control of arterial hypertension, higher risk of cardiac arrythmias, alterations in blood lipids and progression of atherosclerosis, severe forms of infectious diseases, long-term COVID-19 syndrome, increased risk of cancers, and many other illnesses [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ].…”

“…Many risk factors can contribute to the development of Mg deficiency, including: insufficient consumption of Mg-rich foods [ 19 , 21 ], e.g., in a Western-pattern diet that is based on consuming a lot of processed food, demineralized water, and little vegetables which, in turn, themselves are low in Mg since are usually grown in soil that is poor in Mg [ 23 ]; or due to prolonged fasting or total parenteral nutrition [ 27 ]; increased gastrointestinal loss and/or decreased absorption of Mg due to, e.g., bowel resection/bypass, short bowel syndrome, heavy alcohol consumption, or inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) [ 19 , 27 , 32 ]; increased renal loss of Mg, e.g., due to diabetes mellitus, chronic metabolic acidosis, post-kidney transplantation, acute tubular necrosis, post-obstructive diuresis, or excessive volume expansion; or also in the case of rare genetic syndromes, e.g., Gitelman syndrome, or familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis [ 19 , 24 , 27 ]. …”

“…insufficient consumption of Mg-rich foods [ 19 , 21 ], e.g., in a Western-pattern diet that is based on consuming a lot of processed food, demineralized water, and little vegetables which, in turn, themselves are low in Mg since are usually grown in soil that is poor in Mg [ 23 ]; or due to prolonged fasting or total parenteral nutrition [ 27 ];…”