Occurrence and ecotoxicity of sulfonamides in the aquatic environment: A review

Effects of Sulfamethoxazole on Fertilization and Embryo Development in the Arbacia lixula Sea Urchin

“…When pollutants, including drugs, are poured into the aquatic environment, the gametes are exposed to these substances, which alters their quality and fertilization processes [ 58 ]. As reported by Duan et al [ 38 ], although SMX concentrations range from only ng/L to μg/L in natural water, the discharge of livestock and aquaculture wastewater can cause the elevation of SMX levels (54.83 mg/L, [ 39 ]). For this reason, with information about the toxicity of this drug being scarce and unclear [ 38 ], our study aimed to analyze for the first time its in vitro effects on the gametes and fertilization of A. lixula in particular so as to evaluate whether the negative effects occur during the gametes’ simultaneous exposure or during pre- or post-fertilization exposure.…”

“…The average concentrations of the drug that are detected in wastewater range from ng/L to μg/L [ 32 , 33 ], and several studies have demonstrated its negative effects (i.e., oxidative stress, the suppression of the immune response, inflammation, the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity, the alteration of osmotic regulation, and the alteration of energy metabolism) in marine vertebrates and invertebrates [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. However, other authors have recently reported that the concentrations of this drug discarded by the livestock industry and in aquaculture wastewater can rise to the level of mg/L [ 38 , 39 ]. Focusing on invertebrates, it is known that they play an important role as a source of bioactive molecules with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor effects [ 4 , 5 , 40 , 41 , 42 ], and they also represent useful bioindicators for the study of environmental conditions [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ].…”

“…Furthermore, their lifecycle stages, such as fertilization and embryonic division, are particularly sensitive to environmental conditions and are therefore increasingly used in the ecotoxicological approach to assess the quality of an environment [ 50 , 51 ]. In light of all of this, given the importance of these invertebrates as bioindicators, and considering the SMX concentrations reported by other authors [ 32 , 33 , 38 , 39 ], our study aimed to investigate for the first time the in vitro effects of exposure to sulfamethoxazole at different concentrations and at three different stages (simultaneously with, prior to, and post-fertilization) on Arbacia lixula gametes and embryos. Our goal was to evaluate whether the drug negatively affects the gametes and embryos and whether this depends on the concentration.…”

Rhodococcus strains as a good biotool for neutralizing pharmaceutical pollutants and obtaining therapeutically valuable products: Through the past into the future

“…The presence of antibiotics in the environment is recognized as one of the top 10 global public health threats facing humanity ( World Health Organization, 2020 ). Antibiotics were detected in wastewater, soils, sediments, surface water, groundwater, and drinking water in a concentration range of ng/L to hundreds of mg/L ( Kovalakova et al, 2020 ; Yin, 2021 ; Duan et al, 2022 ; Junaid et al, 2022 ). Antibiotic misuse and overuse are the main drivers in the spread of antibiotic-resistant pathogens and genes ( Zhang et al, 2021a ).…”

Ligation Motifs in Zinc-Bound Sulfonamide Drugs Assayed by IR Ion Spectroscopy

“…Their bacteriostatic action is exerted by inhibiting the use of 4-aminobenzoic acid, which is essential for the synthesis of folic acid, a fundamental developmental factor in the metabolism of microbes. Sulfonamides are currently widely used as veterinary antibiotics, and their release in the environment raises serious ecotoxicity concerns [ 5 , 6 ]. Transition metal complexes of sulfa drugs have shown enhanced antibacterial, antifungal and antiglaucoma action [ 7 , 8 ].…”