Occurrence of Melamine and Its Derivatives in Breast Milk from the United States and Its Implications for Exposure in Infants

Abstract

Melamine received public and regulatory attention in 2008 following a scandal that involved the adulteration of milk and infant formula in China that affected tens of thousands of infants. Little is known about human exposure and the food chain transfer of melamine and its derivatives. In this study, melamine, cyanuric acid, ammeline, and ammelide were analyzed in 100 human milk samples collected from the United States during the period of 2009–2012. ∑Melamine (sum of melamine and its three derivatives) was found in breast milk at concentrations that ranged from 0.176 to 10.0 ng/mL (median: 1.40 ng/mL). Cyanuric acid was the major derivative, accounting for 73% of the total concentrations, followed by melamine (21%). No remarkable associations were noted between melamine and cyanuric acid concentrations and maternal/infant characteristics. The cumulative daily intakes of melamine (16.9–30.6 ng/kg bw/day) and cyanuric acid (88.8–161 ng/kg bw/day) were calculated for breast-fed infants and were found to be 1–2 orders of magnitude below the current tolerable daily intake. This is the first study to report the distribution of melamine and its derivatives in breast milk from the United States.

Presence of melamine in human milk and the evaluation of the effects on mother–infant pairs in a cohort study

“…Exposure to melamine might change depending on region and country. 13,14 One study with the same methodology reported melamine contamination in 3.6% (3/83) of breast milk samples in Eskişehir, Turkey. 13 So far, the previous study in Ankara, Turkey showed that 20.8% of 77 milk samples were positive for melamine presence (range ¼ 10.6-76.4 ng/L).…”

“…During the lactation period, maternal exposure to melamine, either through contaminated foods or use of dishes, can result in melamine transfer to the infants via milk. 14…”

“…On the other hand, the previous study in the United States reported no differences among cases in the melamine compound's according to birth weight. 14 This might be due to low dose exposure of motherinfant pairs in the United States. There is no published study to evaluate growth in the exclusively breastfed infant.…”

“…To date, limited data are available on assessing the transfer of melamine into human milk. [12][13][14] Although the exposure level is very little compared to self-consumption of contaminated food, melamine exposure to pregnant and lactating women can be a potential risk to the offspring during critical periods of development. 14 Since foetuses and infants are more vulnerable to the effects of environmental pollution, any possible route of melamine transfer should be prevented.…”

“…[12][13][14] Although the exposure level is very little compared to self-consumption of contaminated food, melamine exposure to pregnant and lactating women can be a potential risk to the offspring during critical periods of development. 14 Since foetuses and infants are more vulnerable to the effects of environmental pollution, any possible route of melamine transfer should be prevented. 1,3,6 There are several studies about MA and renal disorders, however, its extra-renal effects are not well researched.…”