Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Dried Fruits Worldwide, with a Focus on Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A: A Review

Abstract

Dried fruits are popular and nutritious snacks consumed worldwide due to their long shelf life and concentrated nutrient content. However, fruits can be contaminated with various toxigenic fungal species during different stages, including cultivation, harvesting, processing, drying, and storage. Consequently, these products may contain high levels of mycotoxins. This risk is particularly pronounced in developed countries due to the impact of climate change. Several factors contribute to mycotoxin production, including the type of fruit, geographical location, climate conditions, harvest treatments, and storage management practices. The main mycotoxins in dried fruits are aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA), which can induce human health problems and economic losses. Mycotoxin contamination can vary significantly depending on the geographic origin of dried fruits (vine fruits, figs, dates, apricots, prunes, and mulberries). The aim of this review was to fill the knowledge gap by consolidating data from various regions to understand the global picture and identify regions with higher contamination risks. By consolidating research from various origins and stages of the supply chain, the review intends to shed light on potential contamination events during pre-harvest, drying, storage, and trading, while also highlighting the effects of storage conditions and climate change on mycotoxin contamination.

IoT for Monitoring Fungal Growth and Ochratoxin A Development in Grapes Solar Drying in Tunnel and in Open Air

“…The type of drying influences the drying rate, due to higher drying temperatures achieved and the consequently shorter drying time, which affects the production of CFU/mL and OTA. Grape variety has also been found to favour OTA accumulation in red grape varieties compared to white varieties, probably due to the components (i.e., Brix and acidity) of red dried grapes [10,14], but also due to the higher water content, as found in both experiments (2020 and 2021). In terms of OTA production, open-air drying showed a non-significantly higher content compared to tunnel drying, although the opposite trend was found in 2020 (Table 5).…”

“…Environmental conditions (air temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity) are important for black Aspergilli growth and OTA production. A. carbonarius grows optimally at 30-35 • C, and a w = 0.92-0.98 [10]. For OTA production, optimum conditions are a w = 0.95-0.98 and air temperatures of 15-20 • C or 30-35 • C, depending on the strain, but independent of geographical origin [10].…”

“…A. carbonarius grows optimally at 30-35 • C, and a w = 0.92-0.98 [10]. For OTA production, optimum conditions are a w = 0.95-0.98 and air temperatures of 15-20 • C or 30-35 • C, depending on the strain, but independent of geographical origin [10].…”

A Highly Sensitive and Group-Specific Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for the Detection of AFB1 in Agriculture and Aquiculture Products

“…Aflatoxins (AFs), the highly toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus fungi, are present in a wide range of food and feed commodities, and are assumed significant because of their deleterious effects on human beings, poultry, and livestock [1][2][3]. There are up to 18 types of AFs, but only 6 of them (AFB 1 , AFB 2 , AFG 1 , AFG 2 , AFM 1 , and AFM 2 ) are regulated for food control [4].…”

Comprehensive Insights into Ochratoxin A: Occurrence, Analysis, and Control Strategies

“…Mycotoxins, which are naturally synthesized by fungi, can induce toxic responses if contaminated food is consumed by animals or humans. These compounds have gained global attention due to their remarkable economic implications, which are linked to their impact on human health, animal productivity, and food international trade [1,2].…”