Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intakes, Determinants and Dietary Sources in the Spanish Population: Findings from the ANIBES Study

Abstract

The multiple roles of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in growth and general health are well documented. However, available intake data for the Spanish population are limited and lack gender and age considerations. Therefore, our goal was to assess dietary intake adequacy of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA, their determinants and their major food sources among the Spanish population. Due to their influence on various beneficial functions attributed to omega-3 PUFA, combined intake adequacy with folic acid (FA), vitamin B₁₂ and choline was also assessed. Intake data were obtained from the ANIBES cross-sectional study on a representative sample of the Spanish population (9–75 years; n = 2009), where dietary intake was analysed with a three-day dietary record. Median intake of total omega-3 PUFA stood at 0.81 g/day (0.56–1.19 g/day), with α-linolenic acid (ALA) at 0.61 g/day (0.45–0.85 g/day), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) at 0.03 g/day (0.01–0.12 g/day) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) at 0.06 g/day (0.0–0.20 g/day). Accordingly, 65% of the Spanish population showed insufficient intakes for total omega-3 PUFA; 87% for ALA, and 83% for combined EPA and DHA. Inadequate intakes were significantly higher in children, adolescents, and younger women of childbearing age (18–30 years). In contrast, inadequacy due to excessive intakes was almost negligible. Regarding omega-6 PUFA, total intake was 10.1 g/day (7.0–14.0 g/day), 10.0 g/day (6.9–13.9 g/day) for linoleic acid (LA) and 0.08 g/day (0.05–0.13 g/day) for arachidonic acid (AA). Non-compliance due to either insufficient or excessive intakes of LA stood at around 5% of the sample, with the elderly showing significantly higher degrees of inadequacy due to insufficient intakes (10%; p ≤ 0.05). Median omega-6 to omega-3 ratio was 12:1, and significantly higher in men compared to women (p ≤ 0.05); in children, adolescents and adults compared to the elderly (p ≤ 0.05); and in younger women of childbearing age compared to the older group (31–45 years) (p ≤ 0.001). Oils and fats and meat and meat products were the main dietary sources for the essential fatty acids LA and ALA, respectively. Meat and meat products were as well the main providers of AA, while fish and shellfish were almost exclusively the only sources of EPA and DHA. However, main food sources identified showed important differences across age groups. Finally, the total combined degree of inadequacy observed for omega-3 PUFA, FA, vitamin B₁₂ and choline reached 21.3% of the ANIBES population. The observed degree of inadequacy of omega-3 PUFA intakes among the Spanish population makes it urgent to increase its consumption and to consider the need for supplementation. This should also be the main strategy for the optimization of the omega-6/omega-3 ratio, as the adequacy observed for omega-6 intakes is relatively acceptable. Additional improvement of the dietary intake of FA, vitamin B12 and choline could contribute to the beneficial effects of omega-3 PUFA.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intake among Young Individuals Attending an English University

“…The high intakes of LA and ALA versus EPA and DHA observed would be consistent with those reported in Western countries [13]. However, none of them presented statistical differences according to ethnic background or BMI, except for the intake of total fat (p-value = 0.0069) and PUFA (p-value = 0.0013), which were significantly higher in students from Asia and Europe.…”

“…Our results could be explained by higher intakes of food items rich in long-chain PUFAs [12,13]. Thus, male DMU students were shown to eat higher/significantly higher intakes of food products rich in long-chain PUFAs from aquatic [fish (72.656 vs. 53.907 g/day; p-value = 0.826) and seafood dishes (8.995 vs. 0.575 g/day; p-value = 0.149)], animals [meat (271.553 vs. 193.063 g/day; p-value = 0.016), eggs (17.625 vs. 16.998 g/day; p-value = 0.860), and cow milk (228.09 vs. 163.55; p-value = 0.037)], and plant sources [vegetable oils (1.094 vs. 0.955 g/day; p-value = 0.426)].…”

“…The dietary intakes of DHA plus EPA in the whole group monitored (0.130 + 0.079 = 0.209 g/day) met the recommended daily intake (RDI) of 0.2 g/day recommended by the UK's Department of Health but were lower than the RDI of 0.5 g/day that considers the intake of one to two portions of fish per week [14]. The combined intake also did not meet the RDI of EPA + DHA of 0.45 g/day recommended by the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition/Committee on Toxicity [14], and were below the 0.25-2 g/day established by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) in 2008 [13].…”

Enhancement of yogurt functionality by adding Mentha piprita phenolic extract and evaluation of its quality during cold storage

“…Several studies suggest that high ratios of omega‐6/omega‐3 are a pathogenic factor for many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular, inflammatory, autoimmune, and cognitive diseases, as well as obesity (Katan et al., 2021 ). According to the Healthy Eating Index (HEI), more healthful dietary habits are actually linked to lower omega‐6/omega‐3 ratios (Redruello‐Requejo et al., 2023 ).…”

Effects of omega-3 and vitamin D supplementation in patients with breast cancer: a systematic review

“…Polyunsaturated fatty acids such as omega-6 (n-6), represented by: arachidonic acid and linoleic; and omega-3 (n-3), represented by: alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, have several beneficial properties for healthy humans as they are linked to cell membrane structures and can act on hormone binding and cellular transport activities [5,6].…”