Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake by Age, Gender, and Pregnancy Status in the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2014

Abstract

Despite the importance of n-3 fatty acids for health, intakes remain below recommended levels. The objective of this study was to provide an updated assessment of fish and n-3 fatty acid intake (i.e., eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and EPA+DHA) in the United States using the 2003–2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data (n = 45,347)). Over this survey period, toddlers, children, and adolescents (aged 1–19) had significantly lower n-3 fatty acid intake (p < 0.001) compared to adults and seniors, which remained significant after adjusting for caloric intake. Females demonstrated lower n-3 fatty acid intake than males (p < 0.001), with adult and senior women having significantly lower intakes compared to men in the same age categories (p < 0.001) after adjustment for energy intake. Women also consumed less fish than men (5.8 versus 6.1 servings/month, p < 0.001). The estimated intakes of n-3 fatty acids in pregnant women did not differ from non-pregnant women (p = 0.6 for EPA+DHA), although pregnant women reported consuming less high n-3 fatty acid-containing fish than non-pregnant women (1.8 versus 2.6 servings/month, p < 0.001). Our findings indicate that subgroups of the population may be at higher risk of n-3 fatty acid intakes below recommended levels.

n‐3 Docosapentaenoic Acid Intake and Relationship with Plasma Long‐Chain n‐3 Fatty Acid Concentrations in the United States: NHANES 2003–2014

“…Even when accounting for DPA intake, the total daily long‐chain n‐3 fatty acid intake (defined as EPA + DPA + DHA) of the majority of the US population is well below the ~250–500 mg/day amount estimated to be provided by the amount of fish/seafood consumption recommended by the AHA (Arnett et al, ; Rimm et al, ) and the 2015–2020 DGA (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture, ). Similar to previous findings for EPA and DHA in this population (Thompson et al, ), DPA intake was lower in women and younger age groups (<19 years), even when adjusting for differences in caloric needs between age groups. This pattern of DPA intake was also found in Norway (Johansson et al, ) and similar trends have been reported for EPA and DHA (Papanikolaou et al, ; Richter et al, ; Thompson et al, ).…”

“…Similar to previous findings for EPA and DHA in this population (Thompson et al, ), DPA intake was lower in women and younger age groups (<19 years), even when adjusting for differences in caloric needs between age groups. This pattern of DPA intake was also found in Norway (Johansson et al, ) and similar trends have been reported for EPA and DHA (Papanikolaou et al, ; Richter et al, ; Thompson et al, ). These differences may have implications for dietary recommendations and should be further explored.…”

“…Even when accounting for the potential endogenous, albeit limited, conversion of shorter-chain plant-based n-3 fatty acids, over 90% of the study population (n = 24,621) consumed less than the recommended 500 mg/day (Richter et al, 2017). A recent analysis that included the most current NHANES cycles (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014) also found similarly inadequate EPA and DHA intake (Thompson et al, 2019).…”

“…1. The values for EPA and DHA intake are reproduced from Thompson et al (Thompson et al, 2019) to compare those values to mean DPA intake. Mean DPA intake (19.0 AE 0.3 mg/day) was lower than that of EPA (32.6 AE 1.0 mg/day) and DHA (64.4 AE 1.5 mg/day).…”

Nutritional Gaps and Supplementation in the First 1000 Days

“…A recent worldwide survey of plasma and erythrocyte EPA and DHA content reported a widespread dietary inadequacy, particularly in Western societies [95]. An analysis of NHANES 2003-2014 dietary intake and supplement data found pregnant women had a mean intake of EPA of 33.1 mg (SE = 4.1 mg) and DHA of 67.5 mg (SE = 11.8 mg) per day, and that 7.3% of pregnant women reported taking an EPA or DHA-containing supplement [96]. An analysis by Zhang, et al, (2018) looked at the 2001-2014 NHANES data and found 94.48% of pregnant women were not meeting the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for American's (DGA) of 250 mg of EPA and DHA per day [97].…”