On dogs, people, and a rabies epidemic: results from a sociocultural study in Bali, Indonesia

Abstract

BackgroundPreviously free of rabies, Bali experienced an outbreak in 2008, which has since caused a large number of human fatalities. In response, both mass dog culling and vaccination have been implemented. In order to assess potential community-driven interventions for optimizing rabies control, we conducted a study exploring the relationship between dogs, rabies, and the Balinese community. The objectives of this study were to: i) understand the human-dog relationship in Bali; ii) explore local knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAPs) relating to rabies; and iii) assess potential community-driven activities to optimize rabies control and surveillance.MethodsConducted between February and June 2011, the study combined a questionnaire (n = 300; CI = 95 %; error margin = 5 %) and focus group discussions (FGDs) in 10 villages in the Denpasar, Gianyar, and Karangasem regencies. The questionnaire included a Likert scale to assess community knowledge and attitudes. For the knowledge assessment, three points were given for a correct answer, while wrong answers and uncertain answers were given zero points. For the attitudes assessment, three points were given for a positive answer, two points for a neutral answer, and one point for a negative answer. Respondent knowledge was categorized as good (score >40), fair (score 20–40), or poor (score <20), based on a maximum total score 60. Respondent attitudes were categorized as positive (score >26), neutral (score 13–26), or negative (score <13), based on a maximum total score of 39. Mixed-gender FGDs in each sub-village (banjar) were conducted, each involving 7–15 participants to complement the questionnaire results. On a follow-up research trip in mid-2013, the data analysis was triangulated and validated using semi-structured interviews. Questionnaire data were analyzed descriptively using SPSS 17.0, while qualitative data from interviews and FGDs were analyzed manually according to accepted methods of coding and memo writing. The chi-square test was then used to analyze the statistical relationships between knowledge and attitudes of the respondents.ResultsOut of the total 300 respondents, most were predominantly male (82 %), Hindu (99 %), married (96 %), older than 30 years of age (92 %), and owned dogs (72 %). Dog ownership was motivated by culture, personal taste, and function, with dogs was being used as guards (85 %) and companion animals (27 %), and was sometimes related to religious or traditional obligations (2 %). Relating to their culture and local beliefs, and eventually becoming their way of life, 79 % of respondents kept free-roaming dogs. With the rabies outbreak in Bali and Western breeds becoming more popular, more responsible dog ownership (leashing, confining, regular feeding) became more acceptable and changed community perceptions on keeping dogs, even though the sustainability of this practice cannot be gauged. In addition, the economic situation posed major problems in rural areas. The level of community knowledge about rabies and its associated c...

Determinants of Vaccination Coverage and Consequences for Rabies Control in Bali, Indonesia

“…Over 70% of households own dog(s), and Balinese identify dogs as culturally important, with dogs revered in Balinese Hinduism (24). Dogs are reportedly mainly kept to guard the house, with some Balinese believing dogs can alert their owners against evil spirits (24).…”

“…Over 70% of households own dog(s), and Balinese identify dogs as culturally important, with dogs revered in Balinese Hinduism (24). Dogs are reportedly mainly kept to guard the house, with some Balinese believing dogs can alert their owners against evil spirits (24). Our surveys showed that most Bali dogs were allowed to roam (>90% in rural areas, Table 1), which can lead to perceptions of a “stray dog problem” and pose a challenge for achieving and demonstrating high levels of vaccination coverage.…”

Free‐Roaming Dogs in Nepal: Demographics, Health and Public Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices

“…We found that in Chitwan District (Nepal) some responders admitted killing puppies by drowning or mentioned they knew others that used this method, as well as strychnine, for killing dogs. The sex ratio of 2 : 1 males/females recorded in other Nepalese towns (Acharya and Dhakal, ; HART, unpublished) suggested that more female puppies are killed than males, because females produce unwanted litters or attract males when in oestrus (Totton et al., ; Acharya and Dhakal, ; Widyastuti et al., ). This is clearly an area where sterilization and public education might increase acceptance of female dogs and reduce inhumane killing.…”

“…In Samoa, 30% of respondents mentioned that they knew someone who had harmed or killed a dog to reduce problems associated with canine overpopulation (Farnworth et al., ). In Bali, 74% respondents mentioned that government‐driven mass culling of free‐roaming dogs had occurred in their village in response to rabies outbreaks, but also that puppies, and particularly females, were routinely abandoned near restaurants and rubbish dumps but not killed due to religious beliefs on non‐violence (Widyastuti et al., ).…”

“…Although dogs play an important role as companion animals and work animals, free-roaming dogs can also act as reservoirs or vectors of infectious diseases and thus pose threats to the welfare of humans, livestock and wildlife. Other problems associated with free-roaming dogs are nuisance behaviour, including barking and fouling, attacks on people and animals and vehicle collisions (Slater, 2001;Hughes and Macdonald, 2013;Widyastuti et al, 2015). Compared to owned dogs that are kept confined within a household, free-roaming dogs are often in poor health, suffer from malnutrition and diseases and lack basic health care such as rabies vaccination or anthelmintic treatment (Knobel et al, 2005;Jackman and Rowan, 2007;Belsare and Gompper, 2013;Hughes and Macdonald, 2013;Macpherson et al, 2013).…”