On interpretation of interactions

Loftus, Geoffrey R.

doi:10.3758/bf03197461

Cited by 393 publications

(346 citation statements)

References 8 publications

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“…Although linearity may bear an approximation to some actual psychological relations, many other such relations are decidedly nonlinear, which means that investigating them within the context of linear theory produces profoundly misleading results. A classic example of this problem involves interpretations of interactions (see, e.g., Bogartz, 1976;Loftus, 1978Loftus, , 1985Loftus & Bamber, 1990): As interpreted within the context of linear theory, nonordinal interactions observed with one dependent variable (e.g., recognition performance) can disappear or reverse with another dependent variable (e.g., dЈ) or a theoretical construct (e.g., "memory strength") that is monotonically but nonlinearly related to the dependent variable.…”

Section: Linear Theorymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…It was to solve this problem that in Simulations 2 and 3, we devised the linear structure in terms of "Strength," and then transformed Strength to probability via a nonlinear (Gaussian) mapping. The consequences of such nonlinearities have been discussed in the literature (see Loftus, 1978) and can lead to all manner of illusion and inconsistency, particularly when interpretation of interactions are at issue. The inconsistencies, apparent over iterations in all simulations when analyzed within the context of a linear theory, are simply examples of this general problem.…”

Section: The Unnatural Nature Of a Linear Structurementioning

confidence: 99%

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Linear theory, dimensional theory, and the face-inversion effect.

Loftus

Öberg

Dillon

2004

Psychological Review

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111

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We contrast 2 theories within whose context problems are conceptualized and data interpreted. By traditional linear theory, a dependent variable is the sum of main-effect and interaction terms. By dimensional theory, independent variables yield values on internal dimensions that in turn determine performance. We frame our arguments within an investigation of the face-inversion effect-the greater processing disadvantage of inverting faces compared with non-faces. We report data from 3 simulations and 3 experiments wherein faces or non-faces are studied upright or inverted in a recognition procedure. The simulations demonstrate that (a) critical conclusions depend on which theory is used to interpret data and (b) dimensional theory is the more flexible and consistent in identifying underlying psychological structures, because dimensional theory subsumes linear theory as a special case. The experiments demonstrate that by dimensional theory, there is no face-inversion effect for unfamiliar faces but a clear face-inversion effect for celebrity faces.Understanding the implications of any experimental outcome requires a fundamental quantitative theory, within whose context the numbers constituting the data may be transformed into conclusions about the underlying processes that generated the data. This article is about the general consequences for eventual conclusions of deciding to use one such theory or another and about the specific consequences for understanding a well-known phenomenon in the domain of face processing.The article is divided into five sections. In the first section ("The Face-Inversion Effect"), we describe an extant psychological problem that serves as a vehicle for illustrating the points that we make regarding theories. In the second section ("Theories to Analyze Data"), we describe two quantitative theories: The first, traditional linear theory, is used almost universally within many disciplines, including psychology, whereas the second, dimensional theory, is considerably less known and less used. In the third section ("Simulations"), we describe three simulations, whose purpose is to illustrate some costs and benefits of interpreting data using linear and dimensional theory. In the fourth section ("Experiments"), we describe three experiments that, given the foundation we have established, allow us to make some tentative conclusions about the face-inversion effect in particular and about face processing in general. Finally, in the fifth section, our General Discussion, we compare the two theories that we have been considering: We show formal mathematical relations between them, we comment on the advantages and disadvantages of using one versus the other as a tool for inferring the underlying processes that generated a data set, and we articulate the resulting implied conclusions about face processing.These five sections are designed in pursuit of three interrelated goals. The first goal is to demonstrate (yet again) that traditional linear theory has severe limitations as a basis for conceptua...

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Section: Linear Theorymentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: The Unnatural Nature Of a Linear Structurementioning

confidence: 99%

Linear theory, dimensional theory, and the face-inversion effect.

Loftus

Öberg

Dillon

2004

Psychological Review

Self Cite

111

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“…It is worth pointing out that there is clearly no interaction between age and condition, in spite of this age effect on the number of items: the age difference is not larger in the alphabetical condition than in the direct condition. However, the presence ofa group effect is a problem, because it is still possible that an interaction would come out in a transformed version of the data (Loftus, 1978). In principle, this group effect should not have been found, because the subjects were tested with sequen~e lengths that corresponded to their spans as measured .m t~e preexperimental phase.…”

Section: Subjectsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…A passive storage deficit in elderly people might thus be responsible for their observed difficulties in manipulating information, as it makes them particularly sensitive to tasks requiring both the retention and the manipulation of information. Loftus (1978) has pointed out the complexities of interpreting interaction effects in memory research, because the shape of the function that relates response probability to a particular theoretical component is generally unspecified. Salthouse (1985) has raised the same concerns in aging research, mentioning that the frequently observed baseline differences between young and elderly subjects is a serious problem when examining interaction effects.…”

Section: Manipulation In Normal Aging 573mentioning

confidence: 99%

Effect of normal aging on the manipulation of information in working memory

1998

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The goal of this study is to examine the central executive of working memory in normal aging, specifically focusing on its capacities to manipulate or modify the format of the to-be-recalled material. The central executive was measured with the alphabetical span procedure, during which subjects were asked to recall a random series of words in their alphabetical order. The storage demand was equalized across subjects by adjusting the list lengths according to individual span. Experiments 1, 2, and 3 showed that elderly subjects were not impaired in manipulating information, relative to young controls, even when the difficulty of the task was increased. In Experiment 4, validity was tested by asking young subjects to perform the task under the conditions of full or divided attention. Alphabetical recall was more impaired than direct recall during the divided attention condition, which suggests a larger involvement of the central executive component in the former. These results are discussed in relation to the hypothesis of a central executive impairment being associated with normal aging.Working memory (WM) is a short-term memory system involved in tasks that require concurrent retention and processing (Baddeley, 1986;Baddeley & Hitch, 1974, 1994Salthouse, 1994). In Baddeley's theoretical framework, WM is a tripartite system composed of two specialized slave systems-the phonological loop and the visuo spatial sketchpad-and a central executive. The phonological loop contributes to the retention ofverbal information and is subdivided into a passive phonological store and a rehearsal procedure. The visuospatial sketchpad holds images and spatial information. The central executive is an attentional component involved in the control and distribution oflimited resources (Baddeley, 1986(Baddeley, , 1992Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). This study focuses on the manipulation capacities of the central executive in normal aging. Manipulation is defined as the process of actively and consciously modifying the format of the information to be recalled. Within a WM framework, manipulation would require involvement of the central executive component.This work was supported by a grant from the Medical Research Council of Canada (MRC; PG-28) and from Ie Fond de la Recherche en Sante du Quebec (FRSQ) to S,8., by a chercheur-boursier fellowship from the FRSQ to S.8., and by a scholarship from the FCAR to N.R. and N,C. The authors thank Laurent Mottron, Francois Crepeau, Geoffrey R. Loftus, Frank Bellezza, and Leah Light for their helpful comments on an earlier version of the text Thanks to Michel Lamoureux and Jean-Francois Angers for statistical advice, as well as to Fanny Guerin, Sherif Karama, and Sonia Litalien for testing assistance. Special thanks to Rodolphe Sauvage for conducting Experiment 3. Finally, the authors gratefully acknowledge Ronald Dixon for his comments and for editing the text. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sylvie Belleville, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Geriatric de...

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“…Thus, they discuss the problem of the shape of the underlying distribution in interpreting interactions as if this concerned specifically single-patient methodology. This is simply an error (see Loftus, 1978;Pachella, 1974). The other confusion they add concerns the problem of "base rates and expected values."…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Data, statistics, and theory: A comment on Bates, McDonald, MacWhinney, and Applebaum's “A maximum likelihood procedure for the analysis of group and individual data in aphasia research”

Caramazza

1991

Brain and Language

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On interpretation of interactions

Cited by 393 publications

References 8 publications

Linear theory, dimensional theory, and the face-inversion effect.

Linear theory, dimensional theory, and the face-inversion effect.

Effect of normal aging on the manipulation of information in working memory

Data, statistics, and theory: A comment on Bates, McDonald, MacWhinney, and Applebaum's “A maximum likelihood procedure for the analysis of group and individual data in aphasia research”

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