On the African origin(s) of Palenquero

Abstract

This article examines African influences on Palenquero, a creole language spoken in El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia). The introduction offers an explanation as to why investigations into the (African) origins of Palenque and its creole have presented special challenges. The study then turns to the reigning hypothesis, according to which Kikongo is the sole substrate of Palenquero. Language-internal data (taken from the lexicon, phonology, and morphosyntax) as well as language-external information are examined to show that these are mutually complementary and confirm Kikongo as the dominant (if not sole) African substrate. Three fundamental conclusions will be reached: (1) Kikongo-speakers must indeed have been a dominant force in the early Palenque (ca. 1670–1725); (2) lacunae in our historical and linguistic knowledge are, however, so great that we should keep a guarded attitude toward the current substrate hypothesis; and (3) there are multiple reasons to be very optimistic about future attempts to refine substratist investigations into the creole. Part of that optimism rests on DNA research (based on comparison of the DNA of Palenqueros and Central West Africans), as well as on an astonishing turnaround of sociolinguistic attitudes in 21st-century Palenque. This turnaround has prompted a rapid re-evaluation and never-before seen appreciation of local Africanisms. At present, this enthusiasm is helping to reveal previously undocumented lexical Africanisms, which may soon shed additional light on Palenqueros’ Subsaharan provenance.

Language-Specific Prosody in Statements of Palenquero/Spanish Bilinguals

“…This pattern has also been reported in some Bantu languages, and has been called penultimate lengthening (Hyman 2013). Thus, the connection between Palenquero prosody and with Kikongo language does not seem to be arbitrary, since the distribution of penultimate lengthening in Bantu languages spread over the Eastern and Southern parts of the Bantu zone, as well as the Western part, where dialects of Kikongo were spoken (Schwegler 2017). This makes it probable the connection between Palenquero penultimate lengthening with Kikongo, considering it as an African substrate effect.…”

Feeling/thinking the archive: Participatory mapping Marronage

“…3 SBP has a language with roots in Angola, Congo, Central West Africa and Spanish language (Schwegler, 2017). 4 Participants decided to be identified by their real names in this research: 'their voices could be heard as belonging to them'.…”

“… 3 3 SBP has a language with roots in Angola, Congo, Central West Africa and Spanish language (Schwegler, 2017). …”

Reinforcement of Grammatical Structures through Explicit Instruction in Palenquero Creole: A Pilot Study

“…Palenquero is a Spanish-lexified language with traits from Central West African languages, specifically Kikongo (Granda-Gutiérrez 1971;Schwegler 2016Schwegler , 2017Schwegler and Correa 2018). Palenquero is spoken in the village of San Basilio de Palenque in the northern part of Colombia.…”