Bacterial spores are being consumed as probiotics, although little is known about their efficacy or mode of action. As a first step in characterizing spore probiotics, we have studied the persistence and dissemination of Bacillus subtilis spores given orally to mice. Our results have shown that spores do not appear to disseminate across the mucosal surfaces. However, we found that the number of spores excreted in the feces of mice was, in some experiments, larger than the original inoculum. This was an intriguing result and might be explained by germination of a proportion of the spore inoculum in the intestinal tract, followed by limited rounds of cell growth and then sporulation again. This result raises the interesting question of whether it is the spore or the germinated spore that contributes to the probiotic effect of bacterial spores.The gram-positive soil microorganism Bacillus subtilis has been studied extensively, primarily as a model with which to study cell differentiation and for exploitation in the biotechnology industry. While some Bacillus species are pathogenic (e.g., B. anthracis and some B. cereus strains), B. subtilis has, at most, been associated with opportunistic infections of immunocompromised patients (6,11,17). For these reasons, it has received relatively little clinical interest. Bacillus spores, though, are currently available as probiotics and as competitive exclusion agents (CE agents). Probiotics are live bacterial supplements which can enhance the normal intestinal flora, while CE agents are bacteria which can suppress infection and may contain undefined mixtures of more than one bacterial species (7,8,19). Ingestion of significant quantities of spores is thought to restore the normal microbial flora following extensive antibiotic usage or illness (13). How this occurs is unclear but could include competitive exclusion of pathogens, whether by immunostimulation or competition for adhesion sites. Spore probiotics are primarily used by humans as an over-the-counter supplement for oral bacteriotherapy and bacterioprophylaxis of mild gastrointestinal disorders, many of which lead to diarrhea (13). In the livestock and poultry industries, probiotics containing Bacillus spores are used extensively; an example is Biogrow (Provita Eurotech Ltd., County Tyrone, Northern Ireland), which contains a mixture of B. subtilis and B. licheniformis spores. With the recent ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in Denmark, the use of probiotics or CE agents as antibiotic alternatives seems likely to increase.The validity of spores as probiotics or CE agents was recently demonstrated by showing that oral inoculation of 1-dayold chicks with 2.5 ϫ 10 8 B. subtilis spores suppressed all aspects of infection when chicks were challenged with Escherichia coli 078:K80 (12). One dogma regarding the use of spores as probiotics or CE agents is their mode of action, which presumably must be substantially different from that of the other, better known bacterial supplements, such as Lactobacillus spp....