On the permanence of stored information in the human brain.

Loftus, Elizabeth F.; Loftus, Geoffrey R.

doi:10.1037/0003-066x.35.5.409

Cited by 473 publications

(288 citation statements)

References 14 publications

(24 reference statements)

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“…All statistical analyses were performed in two-tailed fashion with an α-level of 0.05, and the dependent variable was hit rate minus false alarm rate unless noted otherwise. Much research effort has been devoted to uncovering whether existing declarative memories can be erased by learning new materials (without the reactivation component), and the results have been underwhelming (30). Consistent with these findings, results in experiment 1 (n = 146) showed that relearning produced no impairment of the original memory in the absence of reactivation (t = 0.002; Fig.…”

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 76%

“…Decades of behavioral research in humans has revealed that it is easy to alter people's memory reports and to create false memories (40), but the question surrounding whether it is possible to experimentally erase existing memories in humans has been far more contentious (30). Here, we demonstrate that retrieval can destabilize a declarative memory and render it susceptible to an amnesic treatment by relearning even after a substantial delay (i.e., at least 48 h).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 89%

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Impairing existing declarative memory in humans by disrupting reconsolidation

Chan

LaPaglia²

2013

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

122

170

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During the past decade, a large body of research has shown that memory traces can become labile upon retrieval and must be restabilized. Critically, interrupting this reconsolidation process can abolish a previously stable memory. Although a large number of studies have demonstrated this reconsolidation associated amnesia in nonhuman animals, the evidence for its occurrence in humans is far less compelling, especially with regard to declarative memory. In fact, reactivating a declarative memory often makes it more robust and less susceptible to subsequent disruptions. Here we show that existing declarative memories can be selectively impaired by using a noninvasive retrieval-relearning technique. In six experiments, we show that this reconsolidation-associated amnesia can be achieved 48 h after formation of the original memory, but only if relearning occurred soon after retrieval. Furthermore, the amnesic effect persists for at least 24 h, cannot be attributed solely to source confusion and is attainable only when relearning targets specific existing memories for impairment. These results demonstrate that human declarative memory can be selectively rewritten during reconsolidation.forgetting | human memory | misinformation effect | testing effect | eyewitness memory T he entrenched view that memory becomes permanent upon consolidation has faced considerable scrutiny based on recent works demonstrating that retrieval can destabilize existing memories, and that the reactivated memories need to be reconsolidated (1, 2). During the past decade, a growing body of evidence has revealed the chemical and molecular nature of reconsolidation and its behavioral consequences (3). Critically, when a consolidated memory (e.g., a conditioned fear response) is retrieved, it becomes labile and requires protein synthesis for restabilization, and later retrieval of that memory can be severely impaired if an amnesic treatment is administered during the reconsolidation process.Despite the proliferation of research on reconsolidation, few studies have involved human subjects, perhaps because most pharmacological consolidation blockers are unsuitable for human use (3, 4). When reconsolidation associated memory impairments are demonstrated in humans, the effects have been limited to fear conditioning (5-8), motor sequence learning (9), and drug-induced craving (10). To date, we are aware of no study that has shown reconsolidation-associated impairment in declarative memory. Indeed, even when oral administration of propranolol (a systemic pharmacological consolidation blocker approved for human use) reduced the emotional response associated with a fear-inducing experience (6, 7), it left the declarative recollection intact.* Although several studies have examined whether existing declarative memories can be impaired by interference upon reactivation, none has shown memory impairments similar to those regularly exhibited in fear conditioning. Moreover, these studies used a reminder to trigger reactivation of the original memory while pro...

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Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 76%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 89%

Impairing existing declarative memory in humans by disrupting reconsolidation

Chan

LaPaglia²

2013

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

122

170

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“…Another related finding was that much more information is preserved in one's long term memory than one is aware of (for a discussion of this issue see Loftus, & Loftus, 1980). This was particularly obvious in case of mind-pops of English words which had been apparently learned previously but L.K.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Out of one’s mind: A study of involuntary semantic memories

Kvavilashvili

Mandler

2004

Cognitive Psychology

198

209

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The study of memories that pop into one's mind without any conscious attempt to retrieve them began only recently. While there are some studies on involuntary autobiographical memories (e.g., Berntsen, 1996; research on involuntary semantic memories or mind-popping is virtually non existent. The latter is defined as an involuntary conscious occurrence of brief items of one's network of semantic knowledge. The recall of these items (e.g., a word, a name, a tune) is not accompanied by additional contextual information and/or involvement of self -a standard feature of involuntary autobiographical memories. The paper reports several diary and questionnaire studies which looked into the nature and frequency of occurrence of these memories. The data show that people do experience involuntary semantic memories which tend to occur without any apparent cues while being engaged in relatively automatic activities. Possible mechanisms of involuntary semantic memories are discussed (e.g., very long-term priming), and the results of the study provide information on the possible duration of the priming effects in everyday life.Related theoretical and methodological issues and future avenues of research in this neglected area are outlined.KEY WORDS: Involuntary memories, mind-popping, autobiographical memory, semantic memory, very long-term priming, implicit memory. 3Out of one's mind: A study of involuntary semantic memories Most laboratory studies of memory investigate processes which deliberately retrieve or identify information acquired in the past. However, much of our everyday remembering consists of information coming to mind involuntarily, i.e., without any conscious attempts to retrieve anything (Mandler, 1986; Winograd, 1993). This type of retrieval has been noted as far back as by Ebbinghaus (1885Ebbinghaus ( /1964 who, among other forms of memory, delineated memories which occur "with apparent spontaneity and without any act of will", and are "brought about through the instrumentality of other, immediately present mental images" (p. 2). Mandler (1989) claimed that "deliberate retrieval of information seems to be the exception rather than the rule" (p. 103). Thus, "we interrupt our stream of thought with ideas that suddenly 'come to mind', we are frequently 'reminded' of one or another occurrence in the past, and often we are aware of memories whose apparent irrelevance to the requirements of the moment surprises us" (p. 291, Mandler, 1986; our italics).Involuntary memories vary greatly in their character and conditions under which they occur (see Mandler, 1994). For example, the phenomenon of incubation, or a sudden recovery from the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state, or the realization that one had intended to do something at this particular moment (i.e., prospective remembering) -all refer to involuntary retrieval of certain memories and contents.Although the act of retrieval per se is non deliberate and usually sudden, in all those cases it is preceded by repeated attempts to solve a problem (incubation), by a memory...

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“…For example the effect of misleading questions on witnesses raised the question of whether long term memories are stored permanently in the brain or can be alteted or replaced aftewards (Loftus & Loftus, 1980). Other theories were proffered to explain how misIeading questions affect a yimess' ability to gîve an accurate account of the events.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%