Online and Offline Performance Gains Following Motor Imagery Practice: A Comprehensive Review of Behavioral and Neuroimaging Studies

Abstract

There is now compelling evidence that motor imagery (MI) promotes motor learning. While MI has been shown to influence the early stages of the learning process, recent data revealed that sleep also contributes to the consolidation of the memory trace. How such “online” and “offline” processes take place and how they interact to impact the neural underpinnings of movements has received little attention. The aim of the present review is twofold: (i) providing an overview of recent applied and fundamental studies investigating the effects of MI practice (MIP) on motor learning; and (ii) detangling applied and fundamental findings in support of a sleep contribution to motor consolidation after MIP. We conclude with an integrative approach of online and offline learning resulting from intense MIP in healthy participants, and underline research avenues in the motor learning/clinical domains.

Principles of Neurorehabilitation After Stroke Based on Motor Learning and Brain Plasticity Mechanisms

“…These findings are in line with studies showing that lesions in the frontoparietal system can diminish the ability of motor imagery (Johnson, 2000;Danckert et al, 2002). Motor imagery and physical practice also appear to induce similar learning-dependent brain changes (Di Rienzo et al, 2016). Not surprisingly, the activation pattern of motor imagery appears to be similar to the one identified in action observation and mirror therapy.…”

“…Mental practice and motor imagery rely on the ability to simulate actions mentally without overt behavior, as summarized by the simulation theory (Jeannerod, 2001). Motor imagery can be seen as a mental rehearsal of future movements and motor plans (Naito et al, 2002;Schmidt and Lee, 2011), that can be beneficial for motor learning (Di Rienzo et al, 2016). However, actual physical practice shows superior effects on learning (Hird et al, 1991).…”

Motor Imagery during Action Observation: A Brief Review of Evidence, Theory and Future Research Opportunities

“…It is, therefore, unclear if the increased motor-related activity induced by AO+MI training would produce changes in cortico-motor involvement that would remain beneficial throughout the various stages of motor learning. Indeed, prolonged AO+MI training may also promote cortical adaptations that differ from those in MI training (e.g., Ingram et al, 2016; see Di Rienzo et al, 2016), observational and imitation learning (see Hodges et al, 2007) and/or physical practice. Future research should investigate these effects for AO+MI within specific action categories that require different supervisory control mechanisms, such as prehensile, bimanual, and rhythmical actions, sequence learning, aiming tasks, and force production/development.…”

Motor Imagery Practice and Cognitive Processes

“…Within this construct, motor imagery (MI) is a dynamic mental state during which the representation of a given motor movement is rehearsed in working memory without overt motor output (Decety, 1996). A popular and widely investigated application of MI is "motor imagery practice" (MIP; also known as "mental practice") which is a mental simulation process that involves the systematic use of imagery to covertly rehearse a movement without actually executing it (Di Rienzo et al, 2016). Research shows that MIP is effective in enhancing skilled performance both in healthy populations (Driskell et al, 1994) and in clinical groups (e.g., Mateo et al, 2015).…”