“…This direct testing effect has been shown to be quite robust across various learning materials (e.g., text passages, Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; visuospatial information, Carpenter & Pashler, 2007; performed actions, Kubik et al., 2018) and also test formats (e.g., multiple-choice tests and short-answer tests, e.g., Butler & Roediger, 2007; Kang et al., 2007; Smith & Karpicke, 2014). However, its magnitude depends on the level of initial test performance (i.e., retrieval success, e.g., Greving & Richter, 2018; Smith & Karpicke, 2014) and feedback (Adesope et al, 2017; Phelps, 2012; Rowland, 2014), specifically in real-life educational contexts (McDaniel & Little, 2019). Recent meta-analyses indicate an overall positive effect size of d = .56 of testing also in psychology classrooms (for metaanalyses, see Schwieren et al., 2017) and a small positive effect of frequent testing in class on higher education achievement in general ( d = .24; Schneider & Preckel, 2017).…”