Online interventions for reducing hate speech and cyberhate: A systematic review

Abstract

Background: The unique feature of the Internet is that individual negative attitudes toward minoritized and racialized groups and more extreme, hateful ideologies can find their way onto specific platforms and instantly connect people sharing similar prejudices. The enormous frequency of hate speech/cyberhate within online environments creates a sense of normalcy about hatred and the potential for acts of intergroup violence or political radicalization. While there is some evidence of effective interventions to counter hate speech through television, radio, youth conferences, and text messaging campaigns, interventions for online hate speech have only recently emerged. Objectives: This review aimed to assess the effects of online interventions to reduce online hate speech/cyberhate. Search Methods: We systematically searched 2 database aggregators, 36 individual databases, 6 individual journals, and 34 websites, as well as bibliographies of published reviews of related literature, and scrutiny of annotated bibliographies of related literature. Inclusion Criteria: We included randomized and rigorous quasi-experimental studies of online hate speech/cyberhate interventions that measured the creation and/or consumption of hateful content online and included a control group. Eligible populations included youth (10-17 years) and adult (18+ years) participants of any racial/ethnic background, religious affiliation, gender identity, sexual orientation, nationality, or citizenship status.

The eradication of hate speech on social media: a systematic review

“…In addition, some studies have included book chapters, conferences and reports (Kansok-Dusche et al , 2022). Furthermore, one article discussed approaches to combating hate speech with regard to academic papers, conferences and websites (Windisch et al , 2021), but the specific sample studied comprised only two studies. In contrast, in this study almost all the papers analysed below were published in journals classified as Q1 and Q2 in both Scopus and Web of Science (WoS).…”

The interaction between online and offline Islamophobia and anti‐mosque campaigns: The literature review with a case study from an anti‐mosque social media page

“…Evoking such strong emotions trigger 'deep resentment' towards Muslim (Bonikowski, 2016as cited in Smith & Iner, 2021 and help mobilise online users already intensely adopted anti-Muslim hate. Furthermore, although it was one comment, it gives an insight into varying effects of online hate on users about their real-life conditions (Windisch et al, 2021). While the hateful content online can make online users more prone to becoming Islamophobic (Soral et al, 2020) others are motivated to take action to destroy mosques.…”

The ecology of online hate speech: Mapping expert perspectives on the drivers for online hate perpetration with the Delphi method

“…Although lacking a unified definition, hate speech is generally understood as an expression of hostility toward (individual members of) a group based on perceived characteristics such as race, gender, sexual orientation, religion or disability status (Sponholz, 2023). Some branches of research connect hate speech to an intention to cause harm (Kansok‐Dusche et al, 2022), while others understand it as prejudice‐motivated behavior (Windisch et al, 2022). OHS appears as text, images or audio‐visual material that can be communicated instantaneously to a wide audience.…”