“…For the purpose of this research, cyber violence is defined as the perpetration of gender-based harms and abuse through digital and technological means by strangers and intimate partners (Backe et al, 2018). Other terms used to describe online harms on digital platforms and through technology are cyber abuse (Altobelli, 2010; David & Schmidt, 2016), online victimisation (Halder & Jaishankar, 2014; Marret & Choo, 2017), cybercrime (Halder, 2015; Halder & Jaishankar, 2011), cyber aggression (Watkins et al, 2018; Wright, 2015) and technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV) (Henry & Powell, 2015). As such, it has a number of manifestations, which will be considered in this study; gender-based hate speech, also referred to as e-bile (sexually abusive discourse online; Jane, 2014a; Jane, 2014b; Vitis & Gilmour, 2017), image-based abuse (non-consensual creation and distribution of images; McGlynn & Rackley, 2017; Powell et al, 2018), non-consensual sexting (Bluett-Boyd et al, 2013; Powell, 2010; Powell & Henry, 2017; Woodlock, 2014) and cyberstalking (to stalk or harass someone online; Barak, 2005; Citron, 2014).…”