Opportunities or obstacles?

Abstract

Purpose-Applying theories of entrepreneurship, the paper aims to identify the factors-with theoretical explanations-that act as barriers to migrant women entrepreneurs (MWEs), particularly women from developing countries starting businesses in developed economies. The paper further seeks to explore which barriers also have the potential to act as enablers. Design/methodology/approach-The relationship between immigration, ethnicity, gender and entrepreneurship has received little theoretical attention. Linking these discourses, the paper theoretically develops a framework of the possible barriers or enablers faced by MWEs. Findings-The paper reinforces earlier research that MWEs are not a homogeneous group; the problems they face are multifaceted, and MWEs from developing countries are the most disadvantaged of entrepreneurs. It identifies multiple factors-human capital, culture, family, institutional factors, gender and social capital-as possible barriers for MWEs. Findings further indicate that among those barriers, culture, family, social capital and gender have the potential to play a dual role for MWEs, by acting either as a barrier or an enabler. Findings also highlight the overarching and predominant influence of culture-as explained by cultural theory-acting as a barrier for MWEs from developing countries. Research limitations/implications-This is a theoretical paper. Empirical research is needed to test the framework and its different dimensions. Given the diversity of MWEs and the factors that shape their entrepreneurial endeavours, it is difficult to develop a single framework to encompass the complexity of the situation. Nevertheless, the proposed framework provides useful insights into the barriers or enablers that MWEs face, along with theoretical explanations and, thus, acts as a springboard for future research. Practical implications-Given the increasing potential of MWEs, the paper provides implications for not only addressing the barriers but also viewing the barriers as ways to promote entrepreneurship among such minority groups. It further stresses a needs-based approach to customizing policies to benefit the diverse group of MWEs. Originality/value-By providing a theory-based framework of the barriers or enablers faced by MWEs, along with policy implications, the paper contributes to a better understanding of the phenomenon of migrant women entrepreneurship.

Understanding the gender gap in immigrant entrepreneurship: a multi-country study of immigrants’ embeddedness in economic, social, and institutional contexts

“…We hypothesize that a supportive environment influences the relationship between gender and immigrant entrepreneurship in such a way that particularly benefits immigrant women. In line with previous research (Vaccarino et al 2011;Azmat 2013), we argue that immigrant women are in a disadvantaged position and that they are therefore more dependent on a supportive environment. Accordingly, a supportive environment should promote entrepreneurship among immigrant women.…”

“…The individual level comprises immigrants' gender, age, cultural background, and human, financial, and social capital. The contextual level includes the host country's economic, social, and political-institutional environment, such as market conditions, governmental support, and regulations (Kloosterman and Rath 2001;Kloosterman 2003;Azmat 2010Azmat , 2013Peroni et al 2016).…”

“…Although a few initial studies have already documented the existence of a gender gap in immigrant entrepreneurship, it has not yet received wide attention in the academic discipline of entrepreneurship. Apart from anecdotal evidence reporting that immigrant women face greater obstacles compared with their male counterparts (Vaccarino et al 2011;Azmat 2013), neither individual nor contextual factors influencing the gender gap in immigrant entrepreneurship have been systematically examined. Several authors have noted that research has frequently focused on immigrant men as entrepreneurs, whereas female immigrant entrepreneurship has been neglected (Collins and Low 2010;Marchand and Siegel 2014).…”

Blending, credit, context: Doing business, family and gender in Czech and US copreneurships

“…Despite calls for contextualisation and comparative research (Chalmers and Shaw, 2017; Lang et al, 2014; Welter, 2011), we have not found any analyses of copreneurs that address country comparisons. Country context including normative regimes, historical and contemporary economic conditions, and social policy shape conditions for doing business and surrounding discourses (Azmat, 2015; Korpi et al, 2013; Zahra et al, 2014). Comparative copreneurship research represents a unique and focused environment to study differing dynamics of business-family embeddedness.…”

Female Migrant Entrepreneurs in Vienna: Mobility and its Embeddedness

“…The emerging literature on women entrepreneurs focuses on different aspects and dimensions, arguing from different theoretical backgrounds and using different methodological approaches. Nevertheless, some important strands of literature can be identified concerning different areas of investigation: First, there is an immanent focus on obstacles that migrant women entrepreneurs face due to gender, their status in the host society, and/or their 'ethnicity' influencing, for example, networking, access to resources, and human and social capital (Azmat 2013;Baycan-Levent 2010;Pio 2007;Erel 2010). Second, studies analyse whether women's self-employment leads to empowerment and integration or is primarily a reaction to labour market discrimination (Apitzsch 2003;Morokvasic 1991).…”