Optimal age at motherhood. Theoretical and empirical considerations on postponement of maternity in Europe

Fertility postponement and labor market outcomes

“…Economic theory suggests that decisions about optimal fertility timing seek to maximize expected utility [7], [8]. This implies that fertility postponement is not a random event but is a decision women make based on expected costs and benefits.…”

The effects of motherhood timing on career path

“…Fertility delay has been increasing concurrently with female education, labor force participation, and earnings in Europe since 1960 (Gustafsson, 2001), and in the United States since the post-war baby boom (Chen and Morgan, 1991;Caucutt et al, 2002). Hofferth (1984) noted the cross-sectional correlation almost two decades ago in data from the 1976 Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID).…”

“…Deferred motherhood contributes to a reduction in population growth, primarily a concern in Europe, where total fertility is below replacement level. Gustafsson (2001) points out that average age at first birth has reached an "all time high" in many European countries, accounting for much of the fertility decline, and argues for increased government action. Older mothers may face additional health cost, as detailed in "Delayed Childbearing" (Atlantic Monthly, 1995).…”

How Education Drives Demography and Knowledge Informs Projections

“…A close examination of the mechanisms at work suggests that these effects are causal and not solely driven by selection into schooling (e.g., those who would have fewer children in any case attain a higher education). Education has been found to depress fertility preferences, raise female autonomy, increase contraceptive practice, raise the opportunity costs of having children, and postpone the timing of childbearing (Jejeebhoy 1995;Kravdal 2002;Gustafsson 2001).…”