Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a method for monitoring student growth in an academic area and evaluating the effects of instructional programs on that growth (Deno, 1985). CBM was designed to be part of a problem-solving approach to special education whereby the academic difficulties of students would be viewed as problems to be solved rather than as immutable characteristics within a child (Deno, 1990). In the problem-solving approach, teachers were the "problem solvers" who constantly evaluated and modified students' instructional programs. For a problem-solving approach to be effective, it was necessary for teachers to have a tool that could be used to evaluate growth in response to instruction. CBM was developed to serve that purpose. Two separate but related concerns drove the initial research into the development of CBM (Deno, 1985). The first was the concern for technical adequacy. If teachers were to use the measures to make instructional decisions, the measures would have to have demonstrated reliability and validity. The second was the concern for practicality. If teachers were to use the measures on an ongoing and frequent basis to evaluate instructional programs, the measures would have to be simple, efficient, easily understood, and inexpensive. These dual concerns led to the concept of "vital signs," or indicators of student performance (Deno, 1985). CBM measures were conceptualized to be short samples of work that would be indicators, or vital signs, of academic performance. The samples would need to be valid and reliable with respect to the broader academic domain they were representing, but would also need to be designed to be given on a frequent and repeated basis. In 1989, Marston reviewed the existing research on CBM. At that time, CBM was viewed primarily as a progressmonitoring tool in basic skills for special education students at the elementary-school level (although there were discussions and instances of its uses more broadly, for example, see Shinn, 1989). Research in reading focused on two measures: word identification and reading aloud. The results of Marston's