Ordered Rape

Abstract

Policy makers and academics often contend that organizational anarchy permits soldiers to perpetrate sexual violence. A recent United Nations report supports this thesis especially with regard to the massive sexual abuse in the Congolese civil war. We challenge the anarchy argument and maintain, based on a principal-agent framework, that opportunistic military commanders can order their soldiers to rape through the use of sanctions and rewards. Our qualitative and quantitative analysis of a survey of 96 Congolese ex-soldiers shows that ordered rape is more likely in organizations where soldiers fear punishment and in which commanders distribute drugs as stimulants.

Conflict-related Sexual Violence and Rebel Group Fragmentation

“…Yet, despite an uptick in reported sexual violence by rebel groups in recent years (Norda ˚s and Nagel 2018), there is very little evidence of group leaders ordering sexual violence or groups considering it as part of a tactical repertoire (Cohen 2016; E. J. Wood 2018; exceptions in which evidence of ordered rape has emerged are conflicts in Bosnia, Rwanda, Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo; see Schneider, Banholzer, and Albarracin 2015;Nowrojee 1996;Loeb 2015).…”

The roles and ethics of psychosocial support workers in integrated health services for sexual and gender-based violence survivors

“…We argue that these different representations of sexual violence in the eastern Congo should be seen as complementary rather than contradictory, as each framing encompasses some uniqueness. For instance, research evidence reveals that while some commanders explicitly or implicitly encourage sexual violence in armed conflicts (Mukwege & Nangini, 2009;Schneider et al, 2015), motivations of sexual violence transcend strategic purposes and include myriad sociocultural, political, legal, and socioeconomic factors (Baaz & Stern, 2013). Hence, the focus on wartime sexual violence as a weapon of war may not account for the different ramifications of this phenomenon, such as gender inequality and the violence perpetrated by civilians.…”

“…Some perpetrators perceive collectively raping the same victims as essential for creating strong bonds and reinforcing cohesion among militiamen (Bitenga Alexandre et al, 2021). Schneider et al (2015) contend that some commanders deliberately provide incentives such as drugs, alcohol, and marijuana to their combatants to encourage them to perpetrate acts of violence, including sexual violence against civilians. This finding contrasts with Baaz and Stern (2008), who wrote against the weapon of war discourse.…”

"The Worst Place in the World for Women"

“…39 Finally, the FARDC did not predominantly use rape as a strategic tool, and none of the soldiers reported being ordered to rape or abduct individuals. 40 This makes the FARDC an interesting case study as the removal of a coercive external order, originating from a political or military institution, may mean that motives to rape are inherently more personal. 41 This allows the study of how a conflict environment may create internal pressures and strains.…”

“…40 This makes the FARDC an interesting case study as the removal of a coercive external order, originating from a political or military institution, may mean that motives to rape are inherently more personal. 41 This allows the study of how a conflict environment may create internal pressures and strains.…”