“…Some trace metals, such as Mn, Fe, Co and Zn, are essential elements for the metabolism of organisms, whereas other metals, such as Cd, Pb and Hg, have no biological function and are entirely toxic to marine organisms, even at low concentrations (Rainbow 2002;Jakimska et al 2011;Tercier-Waeber et al 2012), or, in the case of Cu, are both essential and toxic depending on the concentration (Bruland et al 1991;Kleint et al 2015). Concentrations of Zn, Cu, Co, Cd, Pb and Ni around Whakaari were well below the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (2000) guidelines for a 95% level of protection for biota in saltwater systems, whereas the concentration of Hg T far exceeded the guideline threshold at all sites, including the open ocean control site C1 ,40 km away from White Island, by up to two orders of magnitude.…”