Organic residue analysis of Egyptian votive mummies and their research potential

Abstract

Vast numbers of votive mummies were produced in Egypt during the Late Pharaonic, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods. Although millions remain in situ, many were removed and have ultimately entered museum collections around the world. There they have often languished as uncomfortable reminders of antiquarian practices with little information available to enhance their value as artefacts worthy of conservation or display. A multi-disciplinary research project, based at the University of Manchester, is currently redressing these issues. One recent aspect of this work has been the characterization of natural products employed in the mummification of votive bundles. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and the well-established biomarker approach, analysis of 24 samples from 17 mummy bundles has demonstrated the presence of oils/fats, natural waxes, petroleum products, resinous exudates, and essential oils. These results confirm the range of organic materials employed in embalming and augment our understanding of the treatment of votives. In this first systematic initiative of its kind, initial findings point to possible trends in body treatment practices in relation to chronology, geography, and changes in ideology which will be investigated as the study progresses. Detailed knowledge of the substances used on individual bundles has also served to enhance their value as display items and aid in their conservation.

Bitumen from the Dead Sea in Early Iron Age Nubia

“…Given the similarity in components and context to the material in G321, it seems likely that this was also a ritually applied black liquid. The use of similar ingredients in mummification balms and black varnishes on funerary statues suggests that this black liquid had multiple uses in funerary practice 13,33,[48][49][50][51][52][53][54] . A link to Osiris may be inferred from the colour of the substance, Osiris is known as "the black one" and shown with black skin, and from the similarity of the liquid to mummification balms, the deceased is identified as an aspect of Osiris 55 .…”

Multidisciplinary investigation of two Egyptian child mummies curated at the University of Tartu Art Museum, Estonia (Late/Graeco-Roman Periods)

“…The latter was supported by ESI-FT-ICR-MS analysis detecting triacontanyl palmitate, one of the major components in beeswax (Fig 6A). Potential of natural wax inclusion (possibly degraded beeswax) was also partially visible in GC-MS results shown by some long-chain alkanes like C 27 , C 29 and C 44 , yet lacking n-alkanols and longer chain (>24) fatty acids [57,[60][61][62]. In sample OM S10 a selection of polysaccharides like pyranone, furanone and their derivatives were identified with GC-MS analysis.…”

“…Mass-spectrometry provided further specification of resin components. Besides general fatty acid profiles, GC-MS analysis showed the presence of abietic acid and its derivatives, indicating conifer resins of the Pinaceae group such as cedar and pine [56,57]. The triterpenoid resin (e.g.…”

Analysis of balms taken from Egyptian human mummies using solid‐phase extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

“…Thus, because of the presence (i) of a mixture of natural substances, (ii) of alteration processes, (iii) of a very low proportion of some ingredients or, on the contrary, a high concentration of others, the use of GC–MS is often preceded by several sample pretreatments. A pretreatment sample was often necessary, such as saponification reactions for the detection of waxes [29,30], dichloromethane or diethyl ether extractions for the detection of free fatty acids and terpenic compounds, as well as fractionation for hydrocarbons [6,26,29,31–35]. All of these pretreatments enable a fine chemical characterization of samples to be obtained, but pretreatments also create the need for more archaeological material mass, when the quantities available for analysis are generally small.…”