“…These studies hold the opinions that the rise of public expenditure, collective enforcement and income redistribution are effective ways to restrain appropriation in principles of marginal cost and marginal revenue. The third strand of literature on appropriation concerns about how appropriation affects economic variables, such as economic growth, income distribution, resources allocation and welfare (e.g., Benhabib & Rustichini, 1996; Esteban & Ray, 1999; Grossman & Kim, 1995; Pi & Zhang, 2017, 2020; Varian, 1989; Yu & Chao, 2021). However, the existing literature neglects to link appropriation with rural–urban migration, the minimum wage and unemployment.…”