Osteochondral Tissue Engineering: The Potential of Electrospinning and Additive Manufacturing

Abstract

The socioeconomic impact of osteochondral (OC) damage has been increasing steadily over time in the global population, and the promise of tissue engineering in generating biomimetic tissues replicating the physiological OC environment and architecture has been falling short of its projected potential. The most recent advances in OC tissue engineering are summarised in this work, with a focus on electrospun and 3D printed biomaterials combined with stem cells and biochemical stimuli, to identify what is causing this pitfall between the bench and the patients’ bedside. Even though significant progress has been achieved in electrospinning, 3D-(bio)printing, and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technologies, it is still challenging to artificially emulate the OC interface and achieve complete regeneration of bone and cartilage tissues. Their intricate architecture and the need for tight spatiotemporal control of cellular and biochemical cues hinder the attainment of long-term functional integration of tissue-engineered constructs. Moreover, this complexity and the high variability in experimental conditions used in different studies undermine the scalability and reproducibility of prospective regenerative medicine solutions. It is clear that further development of standardised, integrative, and economically viable methods regarding scaffold production, cell selection, and additional biochemical and biomechanical stimulation is likely to be the key to accelerate the clinical translation and fill the gap in OC treatment.

Biomimetic Methacrylated Gelatin Hydrogel Loaded With Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Bone Tissue Regeneration

“…Due to the limitation of the mechanical properties of GelMA, GelMA is mostly used to study non-load-bearing bone (such as skull) defects or simulated periosteum ( Gonçalves et al, 2021 ; Xiang and Cui, 1186 ). In these studies, the GelMA hydrogel quickly restored the integrity of the damaged bone surface.…”

“…Bone tissue engineering has become an interdisciplinary field with great potential for development ( Kupikowska-Stobba and Kasprzak, 2021 ). Bone tissue engineering is using new knowledge-based and cell-friendly materials capable of simulating the structural, mechanical, and biological properties of natural bone ( Haleem et al, 2020 ; Gonçalves et al, 2021 ). Scaffolds and cells are essential components of bone tissue engineering, and the right combination is expected to provide improved clinical treatment ( Moreno Madrid et al, 2019 ).…”

Safety and Efficacy of Kartigen® in Treating Cartilage Defects: A Randomized, Controlled, Phase I Trial

“…This may result in more favorable biomechanical properties at the recipient sites and allow earlier weight-bearing and range of motion without concern of graft detachment. Since MSCs are multipotent, additional biochemical and biomechanical stimulations can delicately manipulate the chondrogenic differentiation and maturation of seeded cells [ 66 , 67 ] to improve the functional properties of the derived neo-cartilage tissues [ 29 ]. The integration of 3D bioprinting and biomimetic in vitro chondrogenesis will drive advanced therapeutic innovations for cartilage repairs.…”

Scaffold-Based Tissue Engineering Strategies for Osteochondral Repair

“… Electrospun fibers, obtained by basic electrospinning setup (A) , can be modified by physical or chemical techniques. Post-fabrication surface modifications of electrospun fibers (B) were adapted with permission from ref ( Gonçalves et al, 2021 ). Copyright 2021 by MDPI Inc. …”