“…However, the harsh service conditions of rail train axlebox bearings, including wheel–rail friction wear, time–varying coupling wheel–rail impact excitation, non–smooth load excitation of the vehicle body, and non–linear speed excitation of the bogie can lead to various localized failures [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Statistical data reveal that bearing faults in rail vehicles are primarily concentrated in the cage, inner and outer races, and rolling elements, with a higher incidence of faults occurring in high–speed, heavy–duty operating conditions [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Therefore, accurate diagnosis of single and compound faults of axlebox bearings is crucial to ensure the healthy service state of these components and maintain the reliable operation of rail trains.…”