"Outsider within" the Station House: The Impact of Race and Gender on Black Women Police

Strength in numbers? A test of Kanter's theory of tokenism

“…Some studies had used survey data (Belknap & Shelley, 1992;Gustafson, 2008;Krimmel & Gormley, 2003;Taylor-Greene & del Carmen, 2002), while others had utilized interview (Archbold & Schulz, 2008;Martin, 1979Martin, , 1980Martin, , 1994Wertsch, 1998) and/or observational data (Martin, 1979(Martin, , 1980. These studies had used sample sizes ranging from as few as fourteen police officers (Archbold & Schulz, 2008) up to 1,106 police officers (Gustafson, 2008).…”

“…Most of these studies had used samples of only female officers (Archbold & Schulz, 2008;Belknap & Shelley, 1992;Krimmel & Gormley, 2003;Martin, 1979Martin, , 1980Martin, , 1994Taylor-Greene & del Carmen, 2002;Wertsch, 1998), while only one study had used a sample that included male officers as a comparison group (Gustafson, 2008). Some studies used data from one police agency (Archbold & Schulz, 2008;Gustafson, 2008;Martin, 1980;Wertsch, 1998) while others used data from multiple police agencies (Belknap & Shelley, 1992;Krimmel & Gormley, 2003;Martin, 1994;Taylor-Greene & del Carmen, 2002).…”

“…This theory has been tested using various types of occupational groups including nurses and physicians (Floge & Merrill, 1985); auto workers (Gruber & Bjorn, 1988); school teachers (Dworkin, Chafetz, & Dworkin, 1986); actors/actresses (Hinton, Seggar, & Northcott, 1974); Wall street employees (Roth, 2004); coal miners (Hammond & Mahoney, 1983); coaches (Kane & Stangl, 1991); scientists (Shachar, 2000); and fire fighters (Yoder & Aniakudo, 1995, 1997Yoder & Berendsen, 2001). This theory has also been tested using a variety of jobs within the criminal justice system including judicial positions (Allen & Wall, 1987); lawyers (Epstein, 1981); correctional officers (Farnworth, 1992;Jurik, 1988;Wright & Saylor, 1991); and police officers (Archbold & Schulz, 2008;Belknap & Shelley, 1992;Gustafson, 2008;Krimmel & Gormley, 2003;Martin, 1979Martin, , 1980Martin, , 1994TaylorGreene & del Carmen, 2002;Wertsch, 1998).…”

“…The impact of tokenism on female police officers has been studied using both quantitative (Belknap & Shelley, 1992;Gustafson, 2008;Krimmel & Gormley, 2003;Taylor-Greene & del Carmen, 2002) and qualitative research methods (Archbold & Schulz, 2008;Martin, 1979Martin, , 1980Martin, , 1994Wertsch, 1998). Some studies had used survey data (Belknap & Shelley, 1992;Gustafson, 2008;Krimmel & Gormley, 2003;Taylor-Greene & del Carmen, 2002), while others had utilized interview (Archbold & Schulz, 2008;Martin, 1979Martin, , 1980Martin, , 1994Wertsch, 1998) and/or observational data (Martin, 1979(Martin, , 1980.…”

Family Leave and Law Enforcement: A Survey of Parents in U.S. Police Departments

“…Family Leave and Law Enforcement 143 officers (Martin 1980(Martin , 1994bTownsey 1982). A small sample size unfortunately limits any meaningful inclusion of race in the statistical analysis.…”